INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 NARRATING “HISTORIES OF SPAIN”. STUDENT TEACHERS AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL NARRATIVES1 Cosme J. Gómez Carrasco, University of Murcia, Spain Ramón López Facal, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain Jorge Sáiz Serrano, University of Valencia, Spain Abstract This study analyses the role of Spanish teacher training students as narrators of what they consider to be the history of Spain. Results of this empirical study are based on a random sample of 103 narratives produced by trainee primary education teachers (20-22 years of age) studying at the University of Murcia. We are interested in understanding the role of students as agents of historical knowledge. Recent research in history education has stressed the need to vindicate the active role of students in the creation of historical narratives. How do students construct their accounts of history? How do they reflect narratives of school-taught history? Their narratives always reveal certain forms and skills employed to represent the past. This study focuses on this perspective. We have analysed their extra-curricular knowledge (family, social environments, mass media and other cultural products such as TV series, videogames, websites, etc.) and their memories of school history (curriculum, textbooks, teachers) using a mixed quantitative and qualitative methodology. Our qualitative methodology is based on grounded theory and, in order to analyse discourse, we have used quantitative methodology with the analysis of key events and historical figures present in the narrative, in an attempt to categorise second order concepts and sources of historical knowledge. In the results, essentialist and traditional representations of this historical knowledge can be appreciated. Reported major events are related to a traditional political reading of history and linked to genesis and nation-building events: showing heroes and antiheroes of a national narrative. Regarding the sources of knowledge, teachers’ explanations, textbooks and museums are the factors most valued by students. Keywords: Historical thinking, History education, National narratives, Students’ narratives Introduction When it comes to research on the teaching of history today, two issues stand out as being particularly significant; the reasoning of students with regard to history and their narrative representations of the past. Over the course of the last two decades, research on narrative thought has been tackled in an interdisciplinary manner, both from the point of view of social 1 This paper is the result of research project EDU2015-65621-C3-R “Competencias sociales para una ciudadanía democrática: análisis, desarrollo y evaluación”; EDU2015-65621-C3-2-R “La evaluación de las competencias y el desarrollo de capacidades cognitivas sobre historia en Educación Secundaria Obligatoria”; EDU2014-51720- REDT RED 14 “Red de investigación en enseñanza de las ciencias sociales” 49 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 49 08/12/2017 08:16:41 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 science and from the humanities (Liu, 2013). As far as the teaching of history and other areas of the social sciences is concerned, the analysis of narratives constitutes a significant line of research (Henríquez & Ruiz, 2014). This process has occurred in parallel with historiographical discussions regarding the value of narration in the explanation of history (Ankersmit, 2001). Historical knowledge and the construction of narratives are closely linked (Carretero, Van Alphen, 2014), with narratives of historical topics (explanatory accounts and reasoning based on the use of sources) constituting fundamental instruments for researching and teaching the development of historical thought at different levels of education. Narratives of a historical nature (explanatory accounts and reasoning based on sources) are fundamental tools for researching and teaching the development of historical thought at different levels of education. The analysis of these narratives is approached, above all, from a qualitative perspective, applying a hermeneutical and phenomenological focus (Carretero & Van Alphen, 2014; Chapman, 2011; López, Carretero & Rodríguez-Moneo, 2014; Monte-Sano, 2010). However, the field of social psychology has also made advances by combining these qualitative methods with quantitative techniques which enable social representations to be researched via the use of narratives (Fülöp, Lázsló, 2013; Lázlo, 2008; McAdams, 2006). In fact, research on the public uses of history and the function of history teaching highlight the close relationship between history and nationalism and the construction of national identities. The contents of the school history syllabus, enshrined in textbooks, include the characteristics of a national narrative as a metanarrative of the past of a nation as an imagined community. This fact can also be noted in history teaching in Spain (Álvarez Junco, 2013; Gómez, Rodríguez & Miralles, 2015; López Facal & Sáiz, 2016), which reproduces a national narrative containing numerous stereotypes. The influence of national narratives in representations and accounts of the past produced by students and teachers constitutes a subjective process of identification (González & Carretero, 2013). Forms of national identification are evident in a narrative depending on how the student- narrative subject evolves (Plá, 2005). The influence of cultural studies and the linguistic shift of history have led to researchers on the teaching of history paying more and more attention to discourse analysis and the presence of students as narrators as well as to the ways in which their ideas about the past are expressed (Seixas, 2000; Barton & Levstik, 2004; Barton, 2010). In this regard, the degree to which, and the way in which, the first person of the plural is used is shown to be relevant, be it the subject pronoun “we” or the possessive “our” with which the protagonists are identified in their historical narrative. In addition, making explicit essentialist references to Spain or to Spaniards of the Middle Ages, or earlier periods of history, is of significance. These indicators constitute a specific feature of national narratives and have also been documented among pupils at baccalaureate level (16-18 years of age) (Sáiz & López Facal, 2012). The analysis of social representations of the past produced by trainee teachers is, in our opinion, a relevant object for study. It is important to determine what they know and how they communicate and explain this knowledge in order to foresee to what degree certain stereotypes may be present in their future teaching. Detecting these elements at an early stage may serve to improve history teaching and the understanding of social phenomena. In this context, the concept of the schematic narrative template employed by Wertsch (2002) gains significance as a cultural mediation tool generated and distributed among a social group, which is perfectly applicable to historical narratives as national narratives (Carretero, López, González & Rodríguez-Moneo, 2012). A powerful narrative of mediation is present in the knowledge and historical memories of students and/or teachers due to the significance of national narratives in the school curriculum and textbooks. Carrying out an analysis of the national stereotypes contained in these narratives enables us to understand the internal structure of the historical discourse of future teachers and 50 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 50 08/12/2017 08:16:41 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 to act upon them in order to avoid the continuation of a model of history education based on rote learning and the passivity of the learner. Research Methodology Objectives The main aim of this research is to analyse accounts of the history of Spain as narrated by trainee teachers studying a Primary Education Degree in order to identify both their historical knowledge and the structure of their narratives. This aim can be broken down into three points: 1. To analyse and describe the argumentative structure of their accounts of the history of Spain. 2. To identify the characters, events and processes which they consider to be most relevant in the history of Spain. 3. To detail the sources of historical knowledge which students consider to be most relevant in forming knowledge on the history of Spain. Participants The sample employed was incidental in nature. One hundred and three students took part from a class on teaching methodology for the social sciences in the third year of a Primary Education degree at the University of Murcia (Spain) during the 2016-2017 academic year. As far as the demographic variables of the sample are concerned, three quarters of the participants were women (table 1) and 83% were either 20 or 21 years of age (table 2). TABLE 1. Sex of the participants in the research Sex Frequency Percentage Male 26 25.2 Female 77 74.8 Total 103 100.0 TABLE 2. Age of the participants in the research Age Frequency Percentage 19 9 8.7 20 57 55.3 21 28 27.2 22 3 2.9 23 1 1.0 24 2 1.9 28 1 1.0 30 1 1.0 41 1 1.0 Total 103 100.0 51 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 51 08/12/2017 08:16:41 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 Method A design based on the so-called non-experimental methods was employed, focusing on the empirical and systematic search for a phenomenon, the independent variables of which have already occurred or are not able to be manipulated (Kerlinger, 2002). The aim was to gain knowledge of a reality in order to then obtain explicatory models regarding the characteristics of the historical discourse of future primary school teachers. The analysis of the data combines a quantitative and qualitative approach in order to generate proposals and action strategies, which are normally considered to be complementary in research on history education (Ashby, 2004; Barca, 2005; Barton, 2012). Although combining a qualitative and qualitative analysis, the quantitative prevailed. For the quantitative analysis, the categories for which it was possible were coded using the SPSS v.21.0 statistical package: analysis of frequencies, averages, percentages and bivariate correlations. The handling of qualitative data analyses the conceptual complexity and the discourse of the narratives. The process of qualitative analysis has given meaning to the textual information by following strategies derived from grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2008), which has been employed in other research on history education (Barca, 2011; Barca & Schmidt, 2013). The validity of qualitative research depends on how representative the data, the theoretical basis and its analysis and interpretation are (Anguera, 1998). Tools for data gathering and categorisation First of all, as a means of gathering data, the university students were asked to write a text synthesizing the history of Spain. This account was to be written during a class on social science teaching at the beginning of the academic year (September-October 2013). They were instructed to write a maximum of one page and were given no indication regarding content or form in order to minimize interference in their work. The second stage of the data gathering process consisted of asking the students to assess the sources of their historical knowledge via the use of a list (table 3), preceded by the following phrase: Below, you have a list of sources of information from which you may have learnt about history. On a scale of 1 to 5, assess how much you have learnt from them (with 1 being that you have learnt nothing and 5 that you have learnt a lot). TABLE 3. Sources of historical knowledge in the data gathering method Teachers’ lessons 1 2 3 4 5 Textbooks used in class 1 2 3 4 5 Family 1 2 3 4 5 Friends 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema and TV series 1 2 3 4 5 TV documentaries 1 2 3 4 5 Videogames 1 2 3 4 5 History books and novels 1 2 3 4 5 History dissemination magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Visits to museums or places of historical interest 1 2 3 4 5 National or local festivals and celebrations 1 2 3 4 5 Comics 1 2 3 4 5 52 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 52 08/12/2017 08:16:41 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 The validity of this method of gathering data (an account of historical synthesis) in order to obtain the proposed objectives was based on several research projects, for example those of Bage (1999); Barton & Levstik (2004), López, Carretero & Rodríguez-Moneo, (2014); Henríquez & Ruiz (2014) and VanSledright (2008). These types of narratives are an appropriate tool for evaluating historical methodological concepts and analysing the social representation of the past and its relationship to collective memory. The qualitative data was gathered and analysed using the ACCESS database. The quantitative data was coded and then analysed with the SPSS v.21.0 statistical package. In order to analyse the contents of the narratives, three categories were defined: historical processes, historical events and historical characters. The historical processes category refers to relatively long periods of time which have been conceptualized from a historiographical point of view (for example, the Civil War, the Transition and the Reconquista). The historical events category refers to specific events (such as the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula or the abdication of Juan Carlos I). As far as the category of historical characters is concerned, the appearance of specific names throughout the narratives has been detailed. Results Principal markers and historical processes in the narratives The most remarkable aspect of the results is that the students’ narratives show a low level of complexity. More than 50% of the accounts are limited to lists of processes, events or characters without a coherent narrative structure and with historical processes outnumbering the other categories (events and characters). More than 50% of the narratives include five or more historical processes. The students were much more capable of remembering processes, such as the Roman period, the Reconquista or the Civil War, than the most important events or characters of these processes. 53% of the narratives mention just one character, or none, whereas almost 60% mention one historical event, or none (tables 4, 5 and 6). TABLE 4. Number of historical processes mentioned in the students’ narratives Number of processes Frequency Percentage 0 11 10.7 1 9 8.7 2 12 11.7 3 8 7.8 4 8 7.8 5 15 14.6 6 or more 40 38.8 Total 103 100.0 53 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 53 08/12/2017 08:16:42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 TABLE 5. Number of historical events mentioned in the students’ narratives Number of facts Frequency Percentage 0 27 26.2 1 33 32.0 2 20 19.4 3 12 11.7 4 10 9.7 6 or more 1 1.0 Total 103 100.0 TABLE 6. Number of characters mentioned in the students’ narratives Number of characters Frequency Percentage 0 32 31.1 1 23 22.3 2 18 17.5 3 6 5.8 4 10 9.7 5 6 5.8 6 or more 8 7.8 Total 103 100.0 The lack of narrative and argumentative wealth of the accounts has already been analysed in previous studies (Sáiz, 2015; Sáiz & Gómez, 2016). We are of the opinion that one of the most immediate causes of this situation is the reproduction of a traditional educational model regarding history, based on a linear and simplified reading of the construction of the nation, which places more emphasis on the rote learning of processes, events and characters than on reasoning, the analysis of causes and the understanding of changes and unchanging situations. We believe that this model is due to a number of factors, including the prevalence of expository masterclasses, the generally passive role of pupils in the classroom, the overuse of textbooks and exams as the main resources and means of assessment (Cuesta, 1998; Gómez, Rodríguez & Mirete, 2016; Miralles & Martínez, 2008). According to Merchán (2001), teaching routines consisting of the explanation and organisation of contents are frequently used in history classes as control and order strategies and to fulfil requirements related to exams. Studies such as that of Sáiz & Fuster (2014) demonstrate that these routines are still practiced. Indeed, many of the elements of the disciplinary code of history still survive: 54 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 54 08/12/2017 08:16:42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 … the set of ideas, values, suppositions, rules and routine practices (of an express or tacit nature), which guide the professional practice of teachers. To sum up, the ensemble of ideas, discourse and ways of making history teaching relevant within the framework of school (Cuesta 2002: 29). When analysing the elements chosen by the students in their narratives (tables 7, 8 and 9), it can be observed that for Ancient history and the Middle Ages a basic thematic thread is maintained based on the construction of a national historical narrative: the classical origins (the Roman period), the cultural wealth contributed by Al-Andalus and the social and political foundations of the Christian kingdoms with the Reconquista as the pivot of territorial articulation. These three concepts (Romanisation, Al-Andalus and the Reconquista) are often interrelated. However, in the students’ narratives, few events and characters are provided, with the exception of the Catholic Monarchs, who appear in more than 50% of the narratives. Only 6.8% made mention of the Muslim invasion and 1.8% referred to the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. As far as characters are concerned, 3% mentioned Abd-ar-Rhaman III, while only 1% mentioned Boabdil, the last Muslim king of Granada. The Modern Age is basically reduced to two themes: the discovery of America and the Empire, along with the two most significant monarchs of the time (Charles V and Philip II). After the Modern Age, dates, names and monarchs begin to gain more prominence in textbooks (Gómez, Rodríguez & Simón, 2013), which is reflected in the narratives we have analysed. As far as the Contemporary Age is concerned, the Civil War/Franco regime and the transition to democracy are the most significant topics. For the 19th century, the number of events (the Cádiz Cortes, the Constitution of 1812, Salic Law) and characters (Amadeo I, Isabel II) mentioned is significant, compared to the lack of references to historical processes. This can be related to the topics taught in the last year of baccalaureate (16-18 years of age), which focus mainly on the 19th and 20th centuries and are of importance for university access exams. TABLE 7. Historical processes[periods] mentioned by students in the narratives with percentages PROCESSES [Periods] Percentage PROCESSES [Periods] Percentage Civil War 66.02 The Six Revolutionary Years 4.85 The Franco Regime 55.34 The Iberians 3.88 Al-Andalus 52.43 The Christian Kingdoms 3.88 The Romanisation Of Spain 39.81 The Industrial Revolution 3.88 The Reconquista 37.86 The Economic Crisis 2.91 The 2nd Republic 30.10 The Appearance Of The Bourgeoisie 1.94 The Transition 29.13 The 1st Republic 1.94 The Spanish Empire 6.80 The Restoration 1.94 The Peninsular War “Guerra De La 5.83 Basque And Catalan Nationalism 1.94 Independencia” The Visigoths 4.85 Enlightened Absolutism 0.97 55 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 55 08/12/2017 08:16:42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 TABLE 8. Historical characters mentioned by students in their narratives with percentages CHARACTERS Percentage CHARACTERS Percentage The Catholic Monarchs 53.40 Charles Iii 4.85 Franco 27.18 Napoleon 3.88 Juan Carlos I 14.56 Abd-Ar-Rhaman Iii 2.91 Charles V 13.59 Amadeo I 2.91 Ferdinand Vii 12.62 Joanna ‘The Mad’ Of Castile 1.94 Isabel Ii 12.62 Philip I Of Castile ‘The Handsome’ 1.94 Felipe Vi 9.71 Boabdil 0.97 Christopher Columbus 6.80 Cervantes 0.97 Primo De Rivera 5.83 Espartero 0.97 Adolfo Suárez 5.83 Riego 0.97 Philip Ii 4.85 TABLE 9. Historical events mentioned by students in their narratives with percentages EVENTS Percentage The Discovery Of America 41.75 The Constitution Of 1812 34.95 The Cádiz Cortes 17.48 The Coup D’état Of 1936 10.68 The Muslim Invasion 6.80 Salic Law 6.80 The Abdication Of Juan Carlos I 3.88 The Battle Of Las Navas De Tolosa 1.94 The Hundred Thousand Sons Of Saint Louis 0.97 The Constitution Of 1978 0.97 The Caretaker Government 0.97 These narratives demonstrate a historical account based on a linear and simplistic view of the past, one which is in line with romantic objectives of history (Carretero et al., 2013), corresponding to the creation of nation states (see, for example, Carretero & Kriger, 2004; Hobsbawm, 1997; and VanSledright, 2008, among others). The teaching of history from this perspective is based on the transference of a collective memory which exalts the value of the founding fathers and heroes of a nation (VanSledright, 2011). Learning based on this type of linear narrative is usually combined with a low level of cognitive requirements, as has been proved in other studies of exams and textbooks (Gómez & Miralles, 2013 and 2015; Sáiz, 2013), thereby leading to an education in history which lacks the ethical dimension necessary for living in a democratic society. 56 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 56 08/12/2017 08:16:42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 With the exception of the modernisation carried out by some innovative minority groups in education during the 1980s and 1990s, as a result of the transition to democracy, such as Germanía-75 and Historia 13-16, subsequent legislation in Spain has limited, or extinguished, attempts at renovation. Indeed, the latest conservative educational reform has maintained, and even accentuated, the positivist perspective of history (López, 2014). In primary education (from 6 to 12 years of age), pupils are required to assume a narrative of the history of Spain, and of their autonomous community ranging from prehistory to the present day. During secondary education (from 12 to 16 years of age), in addition to the Spanish perspective, more importance is given to a Eurocentric point of view, particularly from the Middle Ages onwards. This perspective causes conflicts between the recentralizing efforts of the national government and the centrifugal emphasis of the autonomous communities with their own languages, which assume a similar position of identifying their community as an undivided nation or proto-nation dating back to ancient times (López Facal, 2010). In both cases, in the history taught and learnt obsolete concepts are maintained, which are far from a practice based on posing problems which force students to mobilise skills or abilities for social analysis. This form of history is alien to the practical use of serving as moral guidance for life (Rüsen, 2015). Traditional sources of knowledge The narratives we analysed show a poor standard of discursive structure and are extremely traditional in their contents. The students’ assessment of the sources of knowledge from which they believe they have learnt history continues along these traditional lines (table 10). The two highest-ranked sources of knowledge are teachers in the classroom and textbooks, while the students consider that other, more informal, sources, such as comics and videogames, have taught them little or nothing about history. Neither of the latter two sources obtained the highest mark in any of the 103 questionnaires analysed. TABLE 10. An evaluation of sources of historical knowledge by trainee teachers (with 1 being the lowest mark and 5 the highest) N Minimum Maximum Average Teachers In The Classroom 103 1.00 5.00 3.6602 Textbooks 103 1.00 5.00 3.4175 Museums 103 1.00 5.00 3.2718 Cinema and TV Series 103 1.00 5.00 3.1262 Documentaries 103 1.00 5.00 2.9320 Family 103 1.00 5.00 2.9029 Websites 103 1.00 5.00 2.8932 History Books 103 1.00 5.00 2.8932 Local Festivals 103 1.00 5.00 2.8058 Friends 103 1.00 4.00 2.0680 History Dissemination Magazines 103 1.00 5.00 1.8544 Videogames 103 1.00 4.00 1.5825 Comics 103 1.00 4.00 1.5534 57 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 57 08/12/2017 08:16:42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND RESEARCH Vol. 15.1 The answers in this case were quite coherent internally, as can been observed in tables 11, 12 and 13, which show bivariate correlations between different items (Kendall’s Tau-b has been used due to the ordinal nature of the variables analysed). There is a moderate correlation (0.3) between the evaluation made by the students of the teachers’ classes and that of textbooks as sources of information. The students scored both items in a similar way. Therefore, a statistically significant correlation exists between them. There is also a moderate correlation (0.25) between the evaluation of museums and of cinema and TV series (items with a medium-high score among the trainee teachers). There is also a medium to high evaluation of comics and videogames as sources of information (0.48). TABLE 11. Correlation of Kendall’s Tau-b between the evaluation of teachers’ classes and of textbooks Teachers’ Textbooks classes Teachers’ classes Correlation coefficient 1.000 .301** Sig. (bilateral) . .000 N 103 103 Textbooks Correlation coefficient .301** 1.000 Sig. (bilateral) .000 . N 103 103 ** The correlation is significant at 0.01 (2-tailed). TABLE 12. Correlation of Kendall’s Tau-b between the evaluation of videogames and comics as sources of information Videogames Comics Videogames Correlation coefficient 1.000 .486** Sig. (bilateral) . .000 N 103 103 Comics Correlation coefficient .486** 1.000 Sig. (bilateral) .000 . N 103 103 ** The correlation is significant at 0.01 (2-tailed). 58 IJHLTR 15.1.indb 58 08/12/2017 08:16:42