I E NTERNATIONAL NCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL & BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES SECOND EDITION This page intentionally left blank I E NTERNATIONAL NCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL & BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES SECOND EDITION EDITOR-IN-CHIEF JAMES D. WRIGHT University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA VOLUME 1 Amsterdam(cid:129)Boston(cid:129)Heidelberg(cid:129)London(cid:129)NewYork(cid:129)Oxford Paris(cid:129)SanDiego(cid:129)SanFrancisco(cid:129)Singapore(cid:129)Sydney(cid:129)Tokyo Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA Copyright(cid:1)2015ElsevierLtd.unlessotherwisestated.Allrightsreserved. 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Wright University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Senior Editorial Associates Amy M. Donley Donald C. Barrett University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA California State University, San Marcos, CA, USA Area Editors John Berry Kenneth C. Land Queen’s University, Kingston,Canada; and Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Higher SchoolofEconomics(HSE),Moscow,Russia Institutions and Infrastructure ofthe Social and ClinicalPsychology Behavioral Sciences Applied, Industrial,and Organizational Statistics Psychology Mathematics and Computer Sciences Applications Development Psychology Logic ofinquiry,Data Bases,and Research Design Social Psychology Criminology Personality Psychology Motivational Psychology Barbara Prainsack Psychiatry Kings College London, London, UK Social Work EvolutionarySciences Genetics, Behavior, History,and Society Stefan Ecks Religious Studies University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Scienceand Technology Studies Ethicsof Research Law Anthropology Archaeology Peter Schmidt Health Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Giessen, Germany; and Higher School of Economics (HSE) Guillermina Jasso Moscow, Russia New York University, New York, Environmental andEcological Sciences NY, USA Education Demography PoliticalScience Sociology Labor Studies Studiesof the Life Course Media Studiesand Mass Communication Sexuality War, Peace, Violence,and Conflict v vi Editorial Board Richard Whatmore James Wright University of Sussex, Sussex, UK; and University of University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA St. Andrews, Scotland, UK Area,Development,and International Studies Biographies Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual,andTrans-sexualStudies History Historyof the Social and Behavioral Sciences Philosophy Applied Social and Behavioral Sciences ContemporaryCulturalConcerns Henry Wai-Chung Yeung Harry Whitaker NationalUniversity of Singapore, Singapore Northern Michigan University,Marquette,MI, USA Economics Memory:Cognitive andNeuroscientificAspects Geography Linguistics A Management, Organizations,Business, Marketing, Linguistics B and Finance Neuroscience of Language Urban Studies andPlanning Behavioral Neuroscience Public Policy Cognitive Neuroscience Cognitive Psychology Section Editors Helmut Anheier Dominic Boyer Hertie Schoolof Governance,Berlin, Germany Rice University, Houston, TX, USA Institutions and Infrastructure ofthe Social and Anthropology Behavioral Sciences Peter Bryant Neal M. Ashkanasy IE Business School,Madrid, Spain The University of Queensland, Brisbane,QLD,Australia Management Organizations,Business, Marketing, Applied, Industrial,and OrganizationalPsychology and Finance Graciela Cabana Sarah B. Barber University of Tennesee, Knoxville, TN, USA University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Genetics, Behavior, Historyand Society Archaeology Ingrid Callies Donald C. Barrett Leem,Paris,France California State University, SanMarcos, CA, USA Ethicsof Research Biographies Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual,andTrans-sexualStudies Stefano Cappa Vita-SaluteSan Raffaele University,Milano,Italy Dinesh Bhugra Cognitive Neuroscience Kings College London, London, UK Psychiatry Xenia Chryssochoou Tora Biksony PanteionUniversity of SocialandPolitical RAND, Santa Monica, CA,USA Sciences,Athens, Greece Ethicsof Research Social Psychology Phillip Bonacich Harold Clarke UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,LosAngeles,CA,USA University of Texas, Dallas, Mathematics and Computer Sciences TX, USA Applications PoliticalScience y Deceased. Editorial Board vii Henri Cohen Xin Guo Instituteof Cognitive Science, University of Quebec, The HongKong PolytechnicUniversity, HungHom, Montreal, QC, Canada Hong Kong,China Cognitive Psychology Statistics Daina Crafa Rachel Hammersley McGillUniversity, Montreal,QC,Canada Newcastle University,Newcastle, UK Developmental Psychology History Ulf Hannerz Lena Dominelli StockholmUniversity, Stockholm, Sweden DurhamUniversity, Durham, UK Anthropology Social Work Susan Hanson Tosha Dupras Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Geography Archaeology Jeffrey K. Hass Jacquelynne Eccles Faculty of Economics, St.Petersburg State University, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,MI, USA St. Petersburg,Russia; andUniversity of Richmond, Motivational Psychology Richmond, VA,USA Area,Development,and International Studies Irma T. Elo University of Pennsylvania,Philadelphia, PA,USA Anke Hassel Demography Hertie Schoolof Governance,Berlin, Germany Public Policy Dafna Feinholz Andreas Hess Social andHumanSciences Sector, UNESCO, Paris, France University College,Dublin,Ireland Ethicsof Research Biographies Gonia Jarema Marina Fischer-Kowalski Institut Universitatire deGériatrie deMontréal, Alpen-Adria University, Vienna,Austria Montréal, QC, Canada Environmental andEcological Sciences Linguistics B Christian Fleck Heidi Keller University of Graz, Graz, Austria University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany Historyof the Social and Behavioral Sciences Developmental Psychology Andrew D. Foster Bryan Kolb BrownUniversity, Providence,RI,USA University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge,AB, Canada Demography Behavioral Neuroscience Qiang Fu Kay Levine Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA Statistics Law Rosann Greenspan Michael Lynch University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Law Scienceand Technology Studies viii Editorial Board Sinisa Malesevic Thomas Nechyba University College,Dublin,Ireland Duke University, Durham, NC, USA War, Peace, Violence,and Conflict Economics Chrysostomos Mantzavinos Karen Parker University of Athens, Athens, Greece University of Delaware,Newark, DE, USA Philosophy Criminology Jean-Christophe Marcel Henrike Rau Université Paris IV, Paris, France NationalUniversity of Ireland,Galway, Ireland Biographies Environmental andEcological Sciences Douglas S. Massey PrincetonUniversity, Princeton,NJ, USA Kees van Rees Sociology ErasmusUniversity, Rotterdam,TheNetherlands Cultureand the Arts John A. Mathews MacquarieUniversity, Sydney, NSW,Australia; and Richard D. Roberts LUISS Guido Carli University,Rome,Italy Professional Examination Service, New York, NY, USA Management Organizations,Business, Marketing, Personality Psychology and Finance Debra J. Rog Catherine McBride Westat, Rockville, MD, USA ChineseUniversity of Hong Kong,HongKong,China Applied Social and Behavioral Sciences Education Sergio Della Sala Gustavo Mesch University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK University of Haifa,Haifa, Israel Memory:Cognitive andNeuroscientificAspects Media Studiesand Mass Communication Alex Mesoudi Katariina Salmela-Aro DurhamUniversity, Durham, UK University of Helsinki andJyvädkylä, Helsinki, Finland EvolutionarySciences Motivational Psychology Barbara Miller Yoshimichi Sato George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA Tohoku University,Sendai, Japan ContemporaryCulturalConcerns Sociology Melinda Mills Darren Sherkat University of Oxford,Oxford,UK SouthernIllinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA Studiesof the Life Course Religious Studies Wolfgang H.R. Miltner James D. Sidaway Friedrich SchillerUniversity,Jena,Germany NationalUniversity of Singapore, Singapore ClinicalPsychology Geography Stephen L. Morgan Johannes Siegrist Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD USA University of Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany Logic ofInquiry,andResearch Design Health Daniel Muijs Marianne Stewart University of Southampton, Southampton, UK University of Texas, Dallas, TX, USA Education PoliticalScience Editorial Board ix Claus Vögele Fulong Wu University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg University College London, Health London,UK Urban Studies andPlanning Linda Waite Henry Yeung University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Sexuality NationalUniversity of Singapore, Singapore Economics William Shi Yuan Wang Karl Zimmerer ChineseUniversityofHongKong,HongKong,China;and University of California atBerkeley, USA Pennsylvania State University,Pittsburgh, Linguistics A PA, USA Environmental andEcological Richard Whatmore Sciences University of Sussex, Sussex, UK; andUniversity of St. Klaus F. Zimmermann Andrews,St.Andrews,Scotland, UK InstitutefortheStudyofLabor(IZA)andBonnUniversity, Bonn, Germany Harry Whitaker Labor Studies Northern Michigan University,Marquette,MI, USA Neuroscience of Language