INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: FOUNDATIONS butuh lengkap hub [email protected] INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: FOUNDATIONS edited by Robert M. Gagné Florida State University First published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 Transferred to digital printing 2010 by Routledge Routledge 270 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016 2 Park Square, Milton Park Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Instructional technology. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Educational technology. 2. Instructional systems. I. Gagné, Robert Mills, 1916– . LB1028.3.I565 1986 371.3′07′8 86-6328 ISBN 0-89859-626-2 ISBN 0-89859-8 78-8 (pbk.) Contents 1 INTRODUCTION Robert M. Gagné Knowledge Sources Other Resources What is Instructional Technology? Contents of this Book 2 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: A HISTORY Robert A. Reiser Audiovisual Devices The Systems Approach Individualized Instruction IPI, PLAN, and IGE Conclusion 3 FOUNDATIONS IN LEARNING RESEARCH Robert M. Gagné and Robert Glaser Learning Research Learning as Cognition The Importance of Short-Term Memory Learning Complex Performances Knowledge Organization for Problem Solving Mental Models Self-Regulation 4 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN Bela H. Banathy The Knowledge Base Design Inquiry The Systems Complex of Education System Levels as Primary Levels Learning Experience Level Organization Implications of Societal-Based Organization Complementary Approaches to Design 5 IDENTIFYING AND SPECIFYING REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTRUCTION Roger Kaufman and Sivasailam Thiagarajan Concepts of Instructional Technology A Useful Frame of Reference Specifying Objectives Procedures for Specifying Requirements Needs Analysis Specification of Methods, Media, Modes Summary 6 JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS Paul F. Merrill Job Analysis Task Analysis Summary 7 LEARNING SITUATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS Charles M. Reigeluth and Ruth V. Curtis Affective Domain Motor Skill Domain Cognitive Domain Sequencing Strategies A General Sequencing Model Micro-Level Strategies Three Instructional Models for the Micro-Level Motivational-Strategy Components Approaches to Instruction Management Strategies Conclusion 8 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS Sigmund Tobias Interactive Research Types of Interactions Adaptive Instruction Anxiety Study Skills, Motivation, and Control General Discussion 9 DISPLAYS AND COMMUNICATION Malcolm L. Fleming Some Definitions Attention Perception Learning Concept Formation Other Cognitive Processes Summary 10 INNOVATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS Gwen C. Nugent Educational Television: Broadcast Videotape Recorders Instructional Television Fixed Service Cable Satellite Teleconferencing Fiber Optics Teletext Vidiplex Audio and Video Improvements Videodisc Videotex Summary and Conclusions 11 THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER-AIDED EDUCATIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS C. Victor Bunderson and Dillon K. Inouye Delivery Systems for Education The Evolution of Work Technologies The Evolution of CAE Applications The Evolution of Knowledge Technologies Summary 12 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND COMPUTER-BASED LEARNING Robert D. Tennyson and Ok Choon Park Model-Based ICAI Theory-Based AI CBL Summary Future Directions of AI CBL 13 ASSESSING INSTRUCTIONAL OUTCOMES Eva L. Baker and Harold F. O’Neil, Jr. Measurement: The Basics CRM as a Field of Study Test Design for Criterion-Referenced Measurement Domain-Referenced Achievement Testing Evaluating Instructional Technology Summary 14 PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS Robert M. Morgan Planning for System Maintenance Planning for Systems Change Analysis of Macro-Educational Systems Macro-System Variables Evaluation and Research Requirements The Planning Process Applications of Analysis and Planning 15 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT Robert K. Branson and Gerald Grow ISD and the Distribution of Knowledge The Model Meets the World: Applications The Model Meets the World: Advice to Developers The Model Meets the World: Prospects for ISD Summary and Conclusions 16 FACTORS AFFECTING UTILIZATION Ernest Burkman The ID Utilization Problem Quality as a Stimulus for Adoption User-Oriented Development Implementing User-Centered Development AUTHOR INDEX SUBJECT INDEX INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: FOUNDATIONS 1 Introduction Robert M. Gagné Florida State University Several kinds of events must contribute to the confluence that defines a field of scholarly interest and effort. When such a field is not old enough to be counted as a traditional discipline, the influence of certain trends can be identified and observed as they converge, while other influences remain indirect and less clearly perceivable. Instructional technology is a field of this nontraditional sort. Broadly speaking, two sets of events have contributed to its development. One set comprises the continuing and remarkable growth of new things, processes, and ideas that constitute what we mean by technology. A second and equally essential factor has been the influence of a growing number of people of sound intellect with an analytical cast of mind, a dedication to the promise of human learning, and a vision of how to promote the spread of human knowledge. Clearly, this vision is one of bringing to bear on human beings the most sophisticated set of procedures and machines that can be designed for making learning readily available to all people, and in assuring its effectiveness in developing the capabilities that are learning’s results. The people who acquired this vision and led others to it in this century were often initially intrigued by the potentialities of hardware devices such as the stereopticon, the slide projector, the motion-picture camera and projector. Since learning always involves stimulation of the learner, it was apparent that these devices made possible stimulation for learning that was both deliberately designed and replicable. Consideration of these features raised questions for the intellectually curious. Could the stimulation required for particular learning objectives be designed and recorded on film, so as to be presented many times to many different learners? Could such recorded presentations be employed to circumvent the unfortunate but often unavoidable variability in instruction quality that marked poor teaching? Could certain identifiable portions of presentations for learning, well established in their content and objectives, be made available for teacher use as standard segments of instruction, replicable from class to class? Could some kinds of stimulation for learning be presented by film-related devices that would be difficult or impossible to present in other ways? And as a possibility, could presentations be devised that in some respects captured the most ingenious techniques of superior teaching? With the addition of synchronized sound to the visual display, the same kinds of questions were raised in the minds of people who now were able to characterize this field of interest as audio-visual. Sound, after all, added another sensory channel to the spectrum of stimulation available for instructional design. By so doing, it raised a host of possibilities about the potential synergy between the two sensory channels. Interestingly, many of these questions have not yet received satisfactory answers, and the investigation of visual presentations in relation to sound presentations continues today as a promising area of research. As for the people who were attracted to this field of scholarship and professional activity, they evidenced a variety of preferences and interests. Some came to view the audiovisual field as made up primarily of the technical knowledge required to operate machines—cameras, projectors, recorders, and tape players, as well as the materials involved in their operation, such as film and tape. Others concentrated their attention on questions of accessibility of devices and materials of an audiovisual nature to the variety of users that might be present within an institution or a training organization. And still others focused their curiosity on the challenging and difficult questions of what good were these things for education? What characteristics made them of particular value for the promotion of learning? It was this third set of people, not large in numbers, but strong in their beliefs and their dedication, who collectively possessed the vision that foresaw the promise of instructional technology. Yoon, H.-W., 40, 48 York, R.L., 351, 372 Young, J.J., 275, 282 Young, M.D., 345, 372 Yourdon, E., 150, 172 Z Zaltman, G., 442, 449, 450, 455 Zemke, R., 401, 428 Zigon, J., 132, 140 Zissman, S.B., 14, 45 Zucman, E., 180, 203 Zwimpfer, L., 276, 282