INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND DISTANCE LEARNING August 2009 Volume 6 Number 8 Editorial Board Donald G. Perrin Ph.D. Executive Editor Stephen Downes Editor at Large Elizabeth Perrin Ph.D. Editor-in-Chief Brent Muirhead Ph.D. Senior Editor Muhammad Betz, Ph.D. Editor ISSN 1550-6908 International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning PUBLISHER'S DECLARATION Research and innovation in teaching and learning are prime topics for the Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning (ISSN 1550-6908). The Journal was initiated in January 2004 to facilitate communication and collaboration among researchers, innovators, practitioners, and administrators of education and training involving innovative technologies and/or distance learning. The Journal is monthly, refereed, and global. Intellectual property rights are retained by the author(s) and a Creative Commons Copyright permits replication of articles and eBooks for education related purposes. Publication is managed by DonEl Learning Inc. supported by a host of volunteer editors, referees and production staff that cross national boundaries. IJITDL is committed to publish significant writings of high academic stature for worldwide distribution to stakeholders in distance learning and technology. In its first five years, the Journal logged over five million page views and almost one million downloads of Acrobat files of monthly journals and eBooks. Donald G. Perrin, Executive Editor Stephen Downes, Editor at Large Elizabeth Perrin, Editor-in-Chief Brent Muirhead, Senior Editor Muhammad Betz, Editor August 2009 ii Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning Vol. 6. No. 8. ISSN 1550-6908 Table of Contents – August 2009 Page Editorial: Decision Sciences 1 Donald G. Perrin Design, Development and Effectiveness of a Digital Interactive Multimedia 3 Package in Astrophysics for Undergraduate Students G. P. Pimpale and R. V. Vadnere Comparative Study of Teaching Skills of In-Service Teachers Trained 15 through Regular and Distance Mode Anupama Bhargava Potential of Using Web-based Animated and Interactive Maps in Teaching 29 Geography Arumugam Raman The Roles of Computer Mediated Collaboration 37 and Peer Assessment in Learning Trigonometric Curves Jale Bintas and Firat Sarsar Student Identity Verification and the Higher Education Opportunity Act: 51 A Faculty Perspective Thomas Schaefer, Marguerite Barta, and Theresa Pavone August 2009 iii Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning August 2009 iv Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning Editorial Decision Sciences Donald G. Perrin While exploring decision sciences and teaching a course in management science in a local MBA program, I came to realize that we make scores, even hundreds of decisions, every day of our lives. It is a skill we take for granted, and a task filled with hazards because of erroneous, distorted, or incomplete information, or the need to deal with forces beyond our control. Edward Deming identified the importance of accurate data – lots of data – to facilitate making good decisions. He was a force for change in the Japanese automobile industry after his transformative ideas were rejected by U.S. automobile manufacturers. He became part of a quality movement that has continued under many names for over half a century. Decision science optimizes variables we can control – decision variables. Logical decisions based on decision variables are deterministic – they have fixed answers. Uncontrollable variables include environmental variables. Where these occur within a range, such as daily temperatures, they can be factored into the decision process to produce a range of possible answers. Education involves optimization of a large number of decision variables and uncontrollable variables. Learners can be described by name, age, sex, height, weight, intelligence, experience, aptitudes, learning style, maturation, personality, curiosity, motivation, focus, and attention span. Many of these variables are uncontrolled in that educators cannot change them. Education is based on decision variables we can control, such as curriculum, teaching methods, and learning environments to foster social and intellectual development. Every learner is unique, which is a challenge to our industrial model of education based on batch processing. It attempts to put similar students into groups, the way we grade oranges in a packing shed, so that all oranges in the box are uniform in size and color. In schools, we call this homogeneous grouping. Homogenous groups include students of similar age, intelligence, aptitudes, and academic experience. Large schools have separate classes for high, average, and low performing students at any each grade level. This simplifies the job of the teacher by reducing variability in each class. So long as classes are small, the teacher can adapt lessons and provide individual tutoring to meet the educational needs of most of the students. In the latter part of the 20th century, integration replaced homogenous grouping and the classroom became a microcosm of U.S. society. This added variables of race, culture, language, social class, and intelligence. Students with disabilities were also ―mainstreamed‖ into regular classrooms. Variability among students was greater than ever before, yet teachers were trained in teaching methods designed for small homogeneous classes. The problem was complicated by an explosion of new technology and urgent societal needs that changed the goals of education. Technology, immigrant labor, and outsourced manufacturing, and global competition raised the bar for educational quality and relevance. Compliant and literate graduates were no longer sufficient. Advent of the information age created a demand for professionally trained persons who are innovative, creative, and entrepreneurial to work in high-tech, high finance, multi-cultural, global organizations. Graduates must be technically literate and creative problem solvers. They must be well versed in knowledge, skills and aptitudes with higher levels of learning. They must be able to research and interpret data to make optimal decisions. Are we ready to change our schools and teacher training programs for the twenty-first century? Are our graduating students prepared to resolve global problems such as climate change, territorial disputes, wars, failed economies, food and water shortages, malnutrition, and public health issues? Education should be a powerful influence in finding and implementing solutions. August 2009 1 Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning August 2009 2 Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning Editor’s Note: The authors combine enthusiasm for the new course with a scientific approach to design and development. They recognize the newness of astrophysics to college level curricula in India, and in the absence of a suitable text book, embed much of the content in a multimedia package designed for distance learning. Best of all, the materials were pilot tested as they were developed, and the course can be web enabled and made available on a global basis. This is an inspiring and evocative article. Design, Development and Effectiveness of a Digital Interactive Multimedia Package in Astrophysics for Undergraduate Students G. P. Pimpale and R. V. Vadnere India Abstract Though astronomy is the oldest and a very interesting branch of science, it is observed that talented students do not seek careers in this domain. Generally, they are interested in this subject as amateurs but do not pursue higher studies. Therefore, an interactive multimedia computer package has been designed and developed by the authors for undergraduate students in India to motivate them to pursue higher studies in Astrophysics. While designing the package, norms of distance learning were carefully followed. The textual part is given in easily palatable language and is well supported by a large number of diagrams, video clips, graphs, interactive numerical problems and self-evaluation tests. Two unbiased sample groups were formed by a simple random method from the population of undergraduate students in India. The experimental group was administered the whole package while the control group was exposed only to the textual material in the package. Both the groups were pre- and post-tested. A retention test was also given to the experimental group to know the effect of package with passage of time. Well known statistical tests were employed to interpret the data generated and assess the effectiveness of the package. Keywords: Astronomy, astrophysics, multimedia, distance learning, interactive package, digital package, e-learning. 1. Introduction A star studded night sky is loved by one and all, and the night sky is really an observatory available to everybody and anybody – free of charge! Astronomy refers to the study of positions and motions of objects beyond the earth‘s atmosphere while Astrophysics is a branch of physics which deals with the physical theory of these objects. However, many times the term Astronomy is used in broad sense so as to include Astrophysics also. Astrophysics can be looked upon as the ‗Superset‘ of all the branches of science as it encompasses the entire Universe. Study of Astrophysics begins from the sky, hence one can aptly say --" Sky is the lower limit" for this study. Because of the vastness and challenging nature of this subject, the authors have selected this area for investigation. One of the authors (Pimpale) has been a lecturer in physics since last 28 years. What he has gathered from this prolonged experience as a teacher is that Astronomy is liked by many students; however their interest in this subject remains only at amateur level and therefore they do not pursue higher studies in this area. Therefore, as an attempt to motivate students for higher studies in this mind-blowing branch of knowledge, authors contemplated development of an interactive digital multimedia package using the norms of distance learning. Since the package has been made with distance learners in mind and since it could be made available on medium like CD or DVD, learners can use the material at their own pace and place. August 2009 3 Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning Many concepts and phenomena in Astrophysics require visualization in three dimensional space. There are a large number of three dimensional diagrams which can be perceived on a computer alone. Also, the number of heavenly bodies is incredibly large; hence huge amounts of data need to be handled in this domain. Owing to these factors, the computer becomes an asset for this subject and is a widely used tool in distance learning because of its interactive nature. The authors have, therefore, developed an interactive computer multimedia (MM) package for Astrophysics. 2. Objectives 1. Complete review of the MM material available in the market. 2. Review distance learning courses in Astrophysics run by various universities across the globe. 3. Develop the MM product taking into account the background and instructional needs of the target students. 4. Acquaint students with basic ideas from Astrophysics with the help of the developed package. 5. To assess effectiveness of the package. 3. Methodology 3.1 Background Study 1 to 23 There are many video cassettes and multimedia CDs available in the market. There was a careful, in-depth review of the material. The study was carried out in context of both the text as well as the audio-visual contents. The authors discovered that many CDs are prepared by stalwarts in Astronomy and are, therefore, excellent to convey elementary information on Astronomy. However, they do not cater to the students who wish to take up a formal course of higher study in Astrophysics. Also, many CDs do not give graded knowledge – the method which is absolutely essential in distance learning. 24 to 33 Review included a large number of on-line courses conducted by various universities across the globe. Many universities have designed the courses carefully and they are consistent with the methodology of distance learning. However, a major problem with these courses is that they charge heavy fees (in dollars) which students from a developing country like India cannot afford to pay. In western countries, Astronomy courses are part of curriculum. But in India we do not have such courses at the primary or secondary levels. Further, the number of courses in Astronomy and Astrophysics at the tertiary level is very small. In a very large country like India, it may not be possible for an undergraduate student to join such a course at a distant institution. Hence a dire need was felt to make a tailor made package for undergraduate students in developing countries like India. The package, when made available on a CD or when uploaded on the web, can make almost free-of-charge distance learning material in Astrophysics. According to the statistics given by the World Bank, 144 countries (out of 210) are classified as ‗developing.‘ (http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20420458~menuP K:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html), The authors hope that the present work could benefit students from these countries with a broad spectrum of normally available courses. 3.2 Developing the Multimedia Package 3.2.1 Design of the Textual Component Firstly, a detailed syllabus for the package was framed. It included basic concepts from physics often required in the present area of study. Concepts included Newton‘s laws, Kepler‘s laws, August 2009 4 Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning Laws of conservation of angular and linear momenta, Black-body radiation, Electromagnetic spectrum, Wien‘s law, Mirrors, Lenses, Resolution, Seeing, Magnification, Types of spectra, Doppler effect and red shift, Basic forces in nature, Nuclear reactions and Cosmic rays etc. The following elementary ideas from Astronomy and Astrophysics also formed a part of the syllabus-- Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), Universal Time (UT), Local and Sidereal Times, Julian Date, Big bang theory, Steady state theory, Hubble‘s law, Cosmic microwave background, Birth, evolution and future of the solar system, Classification of stars by spectral class and by the Hertzsprung- Russell diagram, Life cycle of stars, Classification of galaxies, The Milky way galaxy, Formation and evolution of galaxies, Galaxy Clusters, Search for life in the universe, Astrobiology, Methods of search for extraterrestrials, Drake equation, Missions undertaken, etc. Since the syllabus is for undergraduate students in India, their background was kept in mind during this design. The relevant mathematical part was included in the syllabus but the conceptual part was given more emphasis. Experts from this area were consulted to validate the content. After it was approved by them, the entire course was divided into seven units. The units were further divided into sections. The pattern adopted was in agreement with that used in the self- instructional material developed by the Open Universities in India. According to this pattern, a Unit starts with Objectives followed by Introduction. Then various topics are covered in different sections. After a few sections, a self-evaluation test, ‗Check Your Progress‘, was given. It was an interactive quiz indicating the score immediately. The last section ‗Let Us Sum Up‘ summarized the discussion in that Unit. Many interactive problems were given to the target students wherein they can ‗play‘ with the formula by substituting different values of variables. 34 to 40 The textual part was prepared by referring to standard reference books in Astronomy and Astrophysics (A and A). The textual content also included two appendices – one corresponding to useful books and websites and the other to career options in A and A. A list of names and websites of leading institutions in this field is given in this appendix. 3.2.2 Visual Component 41 to 45 In all units, a large number of diagrams, astrophysical images, pictures and video clips were incorporated to enhance the learning experience. In each section at-least one relevant diagram or one relevant image was included. Thirteen video clips were used in the package. 3.2.3 Audio Component Almost all video Clips were supported by audio component to enhance the visual effect. 3.2.4 Soft-wares Used Extensive use of the following soft-ware packages was made: Macromedia Flash MX, Dreamweaver 9, Adobe Photoshop 6.0, Microsoft FrontPage 2002 (Version 10.2623.2625), Internet Explorer 7 (Version 7.0.6000.16711), Microsoft Excel 2002 (Version Microsoft Word 2002, 10.2614.2625) and Quick Heal Anti Virus Plus 2008 (Version 9.50), MiniTab 14. 3.3 Testing of the Package To begin with, the package was made on a pilot basis. The pilot level package was then administered to a group of (12+) level i.e. undergraduate students. A tool in the form of an opinionnaire was designed by the authors. Opinions were sought as regards to the content, language, images, video clips and general structure of the package. Their feedback was taken into account seriously and the package was modified in light of the feedback received. Size of the final package is 233 MB and it is made up of 135 screens, 13 video clips, four interactive problems and 10 Self-evaluation tests. August 2009 5 Vol. 6. No. 8. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 3.4 Development of Print Material Because Astrophysics has not been included in the curriculum of many universities in India, instructional material in the form of text book is not available. Therefore the authors developed a booklet giving basic concepts in that subject. This booklet was prepared for the control group. It had the structure similar to the multimedia package – seven units containing sections and subsections. The pattern adopted is consistent with that for the self-learning material in distance education. 3.5 Formation of Samples The population for the present study was undergraduate students studying science. An appeal was made to such students in the city of Nasik (Maharashtra state) for this study. The authors received responses from 62 students. Out of these students, two equivalent groups were formed by a random sampling technique. One of the groups was arbitrarily designated as the experimental group and the other as control one. 3.6 Development of Tool for Testing: In order to get the knowledge profile for Astrophysics of the target students, a pretest was given to them. For this testing, a tool was designed in the form of a questionnaire. It consisted of 30 multiple choice questions based on elementary knowledge of Astrophysics. Each question was given four options as possible answers – only one of them was correct. The questionnaire was validated with respect to subject contents and communication theory. For this validation, guidance from experts from these fields was sought. A similar procedure was followed for the questionnaires developed for post and retention tests. All the three questionnaires contained questions of nearly the same difficulty level. 3.7 Testing of Samples: Pre-test: Both the groups -- experimental and control -- were pre-tested to get idea about their previous knowledge in Astrophysics. They were asked to attempt 30 questions in 30 minutes by ticking the option which they thought to be correct. Post-test: The experimental group was then exposed to the multimedia package developed by the researchers. A network of sixteen state-of-the-art computers was arranged for this purpose. The group was given nearly four hours of exposure. At the same time, the control group was given the print material to study. Then, both the groups were administered a post-test. The pattern of testing was the same as used for the pre-test. Retention test: A good package should have retention effect on the minds of users. To check whether the package developed by authors retained such impact or not, a retention test was given to the experimental group after one month. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Testing the scores for Normality Before any data are subjected to statistical testing, it must be checked to see whether it fits in the normal distribution. If it does, a parametric test like the ‗t--test‘ in statistics could be applied for the data analysis. If it does not, a non-parametric test needs to be used. To check for normality, the authors have plotted ‗probability graphs‘ for the data. August 2009 6 Vol. 6. No. 8.