Olga Druzhinina Instructional design guidelines to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles Master Thesis in Educational Science and Technology Faculty of Behavioural Sciences Enschede, June 2009 O. Druzhinina Acknowledgements This thesis is the result of my studies on one-year Master programme “Educational Science and Technology”, track “Curriculum Instruction and Media Application” in the University of Twente. There were a lot of people who supported me during this year and, particularly, while I was doing this project. I would like to extend my thanks to: Dr. Hans van der Meij, who gave me several valuable lessons while consulting me for this project. Dr. Henny Leemkuil for his worthful comments on this paper. Johan D’Hondt for continuous support and help in organisation of the two workshops and in all other questions. Tatiana Druzhinina & Vladimir Druzhinin – my parents, that they always believed in me and supported me. Matin Jafarian, Elena Oudalova & Yuri Oudalov for organisational help and support. Liesbeth Meulemans – the teacher of the Russian group, who organized students. Students of the Russian group for their participation in the research. Katrien.Cuypers – the teacher of the French group, who organized students and conducted the workshop. Students of the French group for their cooperation. Larissa Outeshova – a friend, who generously lent a video camera for recording the workshop. Staff members of the Faculty of Behavioural Sciences for their cooperation and help. Prof. Valeriy Lozenko and Dr. Igor Popov for their confidence in my capabilities. University of Twente for financial support to follow this programme. Olga Druzhinina Enschede, June 2009 ii O. Druzhinina Summary This project explored the issue how the concept of learning style can be considered in instruction. Among vast numbers of learning styles theories there are three which are considered as most influential. These are Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Apter’s Reversal Theory. Based on these learning styles theories the instructional design guidelines were developed. In order to show how all of them can be considered in instruction, the instructional design guidelines were implemented in the 4C/ID model. The key idea of these guidelines is to provide students with different learning experience when their learning style is matched and mismatched that they become able to fulfil practical tasks regarding learning material. In the second part of the project the effectiveness of the suggested guidelines was investigated. Considering the limitations of the study which was based only on two cases, it can be concluded that suggested guidelines implemented in 4C/ID model are effective. Keywords: learning style; cognitive style; instructional guidelines; instructional model; instructional design. iii O. Druzhinina Table of Contents 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Relevance of the research ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Purpose of the research ............................................................................................................ 1 1.3. Research approach ................................................................................................................... 2 1.4. Overview of the thesis ............................................................................................................. 2 2. Theoretical framework ..................................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Learning styles models ............................................................................................................ 3 2.1.1. Concerns of the field ....................................................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Criteria to select the most influential models .................................................................. 4 2.1.3. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory .............................................................................. 4 2.1.4. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ................................................................................... 8 2.1.5. Apter’s Reversal Theory of motivational states ............................................................ 10 2.1.6. Approach to consider a diversity of learning styles ...................................................... 14 2.1.7. General guidelines for instruction to accommodate learning styles .............................. 14 2.2. Instructional design guidelines implemented into instructional model ................................. 17 2.2.1. Instructional design model ............................................................................................ 17 2.2.2. Instructional design guidelines implemented in 4C/ID model ...................................... 18 3. Design for a language lesson .......................................................................................................... 26 4. Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 30 4.1. Research design ..................................................................................................................... 30 4.2. Context of cases and participants .......................................................................................... 31 4.3. Data collection and analysis .................................................................................................. 31 4.4. Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 36 5. Report of the cases and discussion ................................................................................................. 38 5.1. Ice-breaker ............................................................................................................................. 38 5.2. First task ................................................................................................................................ 41 5.3. Supportive information .......................................................................................................... 46 iv O. Druzhinina 5.4. Second task ............................................................................................................................ 49 5.5. Information related to the whole workshop ........................................................................... 51 5.6. Assessment of obtained knowledge....................................................................................... 53 6. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 55 References .............................................................................................................................................. 57 Appendix 1. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory ................................................................................... 59 Appendix 2. Materials for Russian lesson .............................................................................................. 62 Appendix 3. Materials for French lesson ............................................................................................... 69 Appendix 4. Observer’s form for gathering data for interpretations ...................................................... 74 Appendix 5. Questionnaires for students to fill in .................................................................................. 77 Appendix 6. Post-test for Russian group ................................................................................................ 80 Appendix 7. Pre- and Post-test for French group ................................................................................... 81 Appendix 8. General form for Russian group ........................................................................................ 83 Appendix 9. General form for French group .......................................................................................... 89 v O. Druzhinina 1. Introduction A lot of people are labelled as untalented and/or not motivated to learn by teachers. However, do teachers provide equally valuable and suitable instruction for everyone? Do they consider individual differences of learners? Do they have instruments for it? The answer to all these questions is “no”. In order to improve the situation, we have to find out what the essential characteristics are that makes the learning of different people different and how we can take into account the diversity of them. It seems that the concept of learning style includes all necessary ingredients to understand how different people learn. 1.1. Relevance of the research Most of the researchers who attempt to review existing models reported that this field of studies is characterized by high level of ambiguity and debate (e.g. Cassidy, 2004; Coffield, Moseley, Hall & Ecclestone, 2004a, 2004b; De Bello, 1990). Different theorists developed very different models. They considered different learners’ characteristics and indicated the relation between them differently. Hence, their suggestions for teaching practice are very diverse. Then the logical question is which model to choose as basic to consider learning styles in instruction. There is no answer on this question yet and that makes it very difficult to consider students’ diversity in instruction. Thus, the project, seeking the answer on questions, which learner’s characteristics should be considered in instruction and how, are highly relevant for improvement of teaching practice. 1.2. Purpose of the research The current research project is aimed to contribute in the field of practical application of learning style concept. Thus, there are two research questions (with sub-questions) to answer: 1) How can learning styles be considered in instruction? a) What learning styles exist among the human population? b) What are the instructional design guidelines for a variety of learning styles for adult learners (+16) which will make the learning effective, efficient and with pleasure? Effective means achieving the learning result and efficient – achieving it in an optimal way without wasting resources of any nature: time, physical energy, mental efforts and money. c) How can different approaches to instructional design for different learning styles be implemented in instruction for a miscellaneous group (where there are people with a variety of learning styles)? 2) How effective is the instruction designed according to the instructional guidelines? a) Can the workshops be considered as conducted according to the implemented in 4C/ID model instructional guidelines? b) How is the instruction perceived by students? c) Have all students learnt effectively from the instruction? The purpose of the research project is to provide practitioners with systematic instructional design guidelines how a diversity of learning styles in a miscellaneous group can be considered from the theoretical point of view. The second goal is to study these guidelines in two case studies in order to get some insights, which practice usually can tell to theory, in order to improve the model. 1 Instructional design guidelines to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles O. Druzhinina 1.3. Research approach To answer the first research question, the literature regarding learning styles is systematically studied and the instructional design guidelines are conceptually derived from the description and pedagogical implications of the most influential learning styles models. To answer the second research question, two cases are studied how the instructional design guidelines work in a real classroom of teaching foreign language groups. The sub-question 2c) is answered by conducting a pre-test and a post-test. To answer other research sub-questions (2a) – 2b)) there will be several sources of data. Creswell (2009) mentioned the importance of multiple sources of data for a qualitative research. Observations, questionnaires and video recordings are used to collect data for the first case. In addition, it is supported by standard measurement of learning style: The Kolb Learning Style Inventory. For the second case, observations, questionnaires and Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory are used to collect data. The results of this research provide some insights on how instructional design guidelines work in real classroom: what is good and is ready to use and what is needed to improve and how the improvements can be done. 1.4. Overview of the thesis The project is based on the theory which is described in the chapter two. The following is presented: • Systematic review of learning styles field including the description of the most influential models: Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Apter’s Reversal Theory of motivational states (part 2.1.); • General guidelines to consider a variety of learning styles described in the models are presented in section 2.1.7. • Instructional design guidelines implemented in the instructional mode are presented in part 2.2. The design according to the developed instructional guidelines for a language group is presented in the third chapter. The fourth chapter is devoted to the methodological issues. Research design, context, participants, methods of collection data, its analysis and procedures are systematically described. The first case and the second cases are described in the fifth chapter which is organized around elements of instructional design guidelines and data is presented from all sources and discussed. Conclusions, suggestions for further application and questions for future research are presented in the sixth chapter. 2 Instructional design guidelines to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles O. Druzhinina 2. Theoretical framework In order to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles in instruction there is a need to bring together the concept of learning style and instructional design model. The results of it are instructional design guidelines where students’ learning styles are considered. The field of learning styles models and the most influential models are presented in paragraph 2.1, as well as general guidelines for instruction to accommodate learning styles. Instructional design guidelines implemented into the instructional model, which is used as a base, are presented in paragraph 2.2. 2.1. Learning styles models A wide range of learning styles models have been developed by different researchers. For example, in their recent review Coffield et al. (2004a, 2004b) stated that during their project of reviewing learning styles models they came across seventy-one models. 2.1.1. Concerns of the field Within the field of learning styles several debatable issues are identified by different researchers (Cassidy, 2004; Curry, 1983; 1990; Rayner & Riding, 1997; Riding & Cheema, 1991; Coffield et al., 2004a, 2004b). These issues and how they are dealt in this research are described below. Firstly, there are a lot of different definitions of the term ‘learning style’; every theorist seems to have defined its own term. Since this research is going to deal with the practical implication of learning style concept, a general definition proposed by De Bello (1990) will be adopted, “Learning style is the way people absorb, process, and retain information”. The second issue is that of how stable learning style is over the time. However, for teaching practices the issue of stability of learning style is not important because it cannot be changed in a minute or one hour, or even weeks or months. Teachers need to know what kind of learning style a student has at the moment of the instruction and how to deal with it. Thus, it is essential to know the variety of styles and how to deal with them in the context of instruction. The third concern of the field is ‘weaknesses in reliability and validity of measurement’ (Carry, 1990, p. 50). Coffield et al. (2004a) describe minimum psychometric standards for any instrument: internal consistency, test-retest reliability and construct and predictive validity. They found only one instrument of Allinson and Hayes which meets all four criteria. Since there is a problem with psychometric characteristics of the instruments to measure learning styles, it becomes very difficult to use them in practice to assess students’ learning styles. Hence, there should be a way to consider learning style in the instruction without direct measuring it. This approach will be used in this paper. The fourth problem of learning styles models is identifying the most style relevant characteristics in learners, which are forming a particular learning style, and instructional settings which will facilitate each learning style (Rayner & Riding, 1997; Curry, 1990; Coffield et al., 2004a, 2004b). Partially, it is a problem of disagreement between theorists about the set of characteristics that learning style concept consists of. The second part of the problem arises from a lack of research on the instructional implication of learning styles. Thus, one of the main goals of this project is to contribute to this problem: understand what characteristics learning style consists of, what kind of instruction is needed 3 Instructional design guidelines to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles O. Druzhinina to fit the needs of a particular learning style; develop instructional design guidelines that a variety of learning needs of different students can simultaneously be met in a miscellaneous group and study the effectiveness of this guidelines. 2.1.2. Criteria to select the most influential models The following criteria for selecting and rejecting particular models to base the instructional design guidelines on are described below. The criteria for selecting learning styles models: 1. The theory has proved to be productive. This means that it has led to further researches and/ or usage of practitioners. This criterion helps to select theories which are widely accepted by researchers and practitioners. 2. The learning styles model is grounded on an explicit theory and empirical researches. This criterion is essential because the information regarding learning styles of students which the instructional design guidelines will be based on should be from a reliable source. 3. The theory should not emphasize differences in abilities (intellectual or others) in order to avoid labelling and categorising. The criterion for the rejecting of models from the description is that conceptually the model is very close to another one that is already in the selection. Based on these criteria three learning styles model are chosen: • Kolb’ Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) • Apter’s Reversal Theory of motivational states 2.1.3. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory Description of the model Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) of Kolb (1984) originated from the works of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget. Based on these authors, Kolb proposed six essential characteristics of experiential learning. 1. Learning is conceived as a process, not as an outcome. 2. Learning is a continuous process of deriving from one’s experience and testing it out. 3. The process of learning requires resolving a conflict between two dialectically opposed modes (in one dimension) of adaptation to the world. The first dimension consists of two opposites: concrete experience (CE) and abstract conceptualization (AC); the second one – reflective observation (RO) and active experimentation (AE). The learner constantly chooses between these learning abilities in a specific learning situation and over time he/she develops a preferred way to resolve the conflicts among the dialectically opposed modes. One to be an effective learner needs to have four different abilities. 4 Instructional design guidelines to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles O. Druzhinina 4. Learning is a holistic process of human adaptation to the social and physical environment. 5. Learning involves transaction between the learner and the environment. 6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge which occurs during transactions between one’s personal knowledge and social knowledge. Summarizing these six characteristics Kolb (1984) suggested the following definition of learning: ‘learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience’ (pp. 38). According to Kolb (1984), ‘knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it’ (pp. 41). The ELT suggests that four abilities are involved in the process of learning and two pairs consists of polar opposites. While grasping experience, some people perceive information via concrete experience (CE), tangible things. Others tend to take information via abstract conceptualization (AC) – by analyzing, thinking about or systematizing the information. Similarly, transformation or processing the experience of some people tends to carefully observe others and reflect on observation results – reflective observation (RO), others prefer to do things – active experimentation (AE). Considering that there are two dimensions: grasping and transformation and each consists of two dialectically opposed forms, four elementary forms of knowledge construction exist which are involved in a four-stage learning cycle (see Figure 2.1.). Concrete Experience Grasping via APPREHENSION Accommodating Diverging Style Style Active Transformation via Transformation via Reflective Experimentation EXTENSION INTENTION Observation Converging Assimilating Style Style Grasping via COMPREHENSION Abstract Conceptualization Figure 2.1. Four-stage learning cycle of Kolb (1984) and four learning styles. Based on the four-stage learning cycle Kolb derived four learning styles as a preferred way of adaptation to the world. Having a certain learning style means that some of the learning abilities are emphasized over others. According to Kolb (1984) and Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis (2001), these four basic learning styles are: 5 Instructional design guidelines to accommodate a diversity of students’ learning styles