International Inoue Enryo Research 2 (2014): 74‒99 © 2014 by International Association for Inoue Enryo Research ISSN 2187-7459 I E ' R E NOUE NYRO S EGIONAL DUCATION M E AND EXICAN DUCATION Agustín JACINTO Z. 0 Introduction During the Meiji Era 明治時代 (1868‒1912) there were several great educators who pro- posed different educational programs. Given the problem of Japan's encounter with the West, they were looking for the most adequate response to the new situation. In order to formulate their solutions, they pursued their own research, some of them even trav- eling to European countries and the United States. Most of the important educators in Meiji Japan were born between 1830 and 1860. 0 Agustín JACINTO ZAVALA is professor at the Center for the Study of Traditions at the El Colegio de Michoacán in Zamora de Hidalgo (Mexico). JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 74 NISHIMURA Shigeki 西村茂樹 (1828‒1902) founder of Meiroku-sha 明六社 and of Nihon Kōdō-kai 日本弘道会; NAKAMURA Masanao 中村正直 (1832‒1891) founder of the short-lived Dōjin-sha 同人社 and director of the Tokyo Joshi Shihan Gakkō 東京女子師範学校 (later Ochanomizu University 御茶ノ水女子大学); NIIJIMA Jō 新島襄 (1843‒1890) founder of Dōshisha University 同志社大学; FUKUZAWA Yukichi 福沢諭吉 (1835‒1901) founder of Keiō Gijuku 慶応義塾 (later Keiō University); KATŌ Hiroyuki 加藤弘之 (1836‒1916) founder of Meiroku-sha 明六社; MORI Arinori 森有礼 (1847‒1889) founder of Meiroku-sha 明六社 and Shōhō Kōshū-jo商 法講習所 (later Hitotsubashi University 一橋大学); and INOUE Enryō 井上円了 (1858‒1919) founder of Tetsugaku-kan 哲学館 (later Tōyō Univer- sity 東洋大学). They all followed the spirit of the Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890, which endorsed education on the grounds of the values of Confucianism and Shintoism. This was the manner in which the individual would receive a solid social education through Confucian values and be educated as a citizen within the sphere of the Imperial Throne. The Imperial Rescript endorsed education that emphasized civil behavior in Japanese society, culture and country. These ideals became the basis for a new defini- tion of shūshin 修身 as a moral, social and civic education of the individual. Perhaps a summary of the educational views in the Meiji Era would read some- what in the manner that TAKATA Sanae 高田早苗 states in the preface to SATŌ Naotomo's 佐藤尚友 book The Way Ahead for Students『学生の前途』(1906). Takata holds that the way the students are trained directly affects the affairs of the State and that this should be a reason against placing economic restrictions on their studies. This is also why it is important to give them directives and advice concerning their studies.1 Further, not all studies should be oriented to the work place; it is also important to cultivate a high- minded personality. In addition, school education should produce different kinds of graduates (pp. 1‒2). And, even though without an occupation we cannot earn our living or contribute to society, we should exert ourselves to reach our own personal fulfill- ment, which will necessarily result in the benefit of the State and society (pp. 2‒3). 1 SATŌ Naotomo 佐藤尚友.『学生の前途』[The students' way ahead] (Tokyo: 実業之日本社, 1906) JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 75 Short Biography of Inoue Enryo INOUE Enryō 井上円了 was born in 1858 in the northern part of Japan. After four years of basic Chinese studies (1867‒71), he was ordained in 1871 in the religious institution of Higashi Hongan Temple 東本願寺 of True Pure Land Buddhism. Then he went through four years of Western studies (1873‒77), entered the teachers' school of his Buddhist sect (1877) and, after being a scholarship student at the Tokyo University Preparatory School (1877‒81), he became a philosophy student at Tokyo University (1881). He graduated in 1885. In 1887 he established the Philosophy Academy 哲学館 in order to promote philo- sophy as the basis for mental training, which would allow people to easily assimilate Western culture and maintain the independence of the country. In 1896 he announced his intention of founding Toyo University, and began the construction of its library. In 1902 there arose a problem known as the Philosophy Academy Incident 哲学館事件, over the question whether it was right to kill an unlawful ruler. In 1903 Enryō presented the proposal for the foundation of the Shūshin Kyōkai 修身教会 (Morality Church). In 1905 he retired from the university and from then on directed his activities to extend the Shūshin Kyōkai. He died in Dairen 大連 in 1919, 61 years old. As MIURA Setsuo writes, INOUE Enryō's "achievements include the founding of Toyo University (formerly the Philosophy Academy), propagation of philosophy, pioneering attempts to modernize Buddhism, proposing studies on yōkai 妖怪 (ghost, phantoms, mysteries, etc.), social education activities (Shūshin Kyōkai Movement), and the founding of the Philosophy Hall 哲学堂."2 "Concerning Education" In his speech of February 13, 1892, titled Concerning Education「教育論」which was given at the Hōrin Seisha法輪精舎,3 INOUE Enryō gives us the gist of his views concern- ing education: "In general, the purpose of education is to teach and bring up people and make them complete human beings" (p. 1). To educate their children is the gravest duty of the parents. But there are three types of education: (1) home education; (2) school education; and (3) social education (p. 2). Apart from school education the child should receive both a home education (given him by his parents) and a social education (in the 2 SETSUO Miura 三浦節夫. "History of Enryo Inoue Research," Journal of International Philosophy 1 (2012), 245. The quote has been adjusted to the IIR style. ‒ Ed. 3 INOUE Enryō 井上圓了.「教育論」[Concerning education] (Tokyo: 琴峰堂, 1892). JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 76 give-and-take with his friends and relatives). Socialized through these three kinds of education, a human being can be a worthy and prosperous person, be it as a farmer, industrialist, merchant, or whatever else his or her occupation is (pp. 2‒3). Parents who give their children this kind of education will have a good reputation. Their name will be remembered in the future as representatives of love for their children because "the success of their children is not only a parental duty but also a source of prestige" (p. 3). There are three aims in education: (1) "physical education" 体 育 seeks to strengthen the body; (2) "intellectual education" 智育 cultivates the faculties of reason and discernment; and (3) "moral education" 徳育 fosters morality. Moral education can be given at home through parental modeling and actions rather than through old stories and ancient teachings. Mental training at home need not rely on book learning but rather on contact with the things (p. 5), taking care not to over-stimulate the brain of the student. As it is enough to have one or two learned scholars in each town or city, it is important to keep in mind that the general end of education is not to train scholars but to form complete human beings (p. 7). The environment is also important, because education imparted in narrow spaces can make the child narrow-minded, and in dirty spaces the child cannot think at all. So a beautiful place in a good climate is an ideal setting for education (pp. 6‒7). Fortu- nately for everybody, in each village and town there is, at the least, a shrine or a temple. The mother or a lady can bring the child to the shrine or temple, which will support home education (p. 7). Furthermore, the walk to and from the shrine or temple, both morning and evening, will contribute to the child's physical education, and can also help it to train the mind, cultivate morals and develop knowledge through contact with people in the shrine or temple (pp. 8‒9). In this manner, the shrines and temples being places of extreme beauty will favor the development of the "moral sense" 道徳心. Concerning religion, they are places where the heart can find trust and peace (pp. 9‒ 10). Enryō's personal contribution to education was the establishment of the Philo- sophy Academy, in order to maintain the independence of the State. He says that even though for a long time there were few who cooperated with his educational endeavors, he was motivated by the publication of the Imperial Rescript on Education to look for those who would be willing to cooperate all over Japan to carry out the will of the Emperor as expressed in the Imperial Rescript on Education (p. 10). The basic purpose of education as the formation of complete human beings through the three types of JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 77 education and the three methods, as mentioned above, gives us a general idea of the manner in which INOUE Enryō saw the contribution of education to personal well-being and to the needs of the State. "A Pedagogical World-view and Life-view" As a result of his lectures given at the Philosophy Academy, INOUE Enryō wrote An Educational World-view and Life-view『教育的世界觀及人生觀』in 1898. The book, which gives a positive view of primary education, is subtitled, An Educator's Theory of Men- tal Peace.4 There are twenty-four sections in the book, which we can divide into five parts. 1. The Educator (chap. 1‒4); 2. Education and the Environment (chap. 4‒9); 3. Society and Education (chap. 10‒13); 4. Living Education (chap. 14‒20); 5. Advice for Educators (chap. 21‒25). 1. The Educator Drawing on his experience as an educator, Enryō addresses the place and conditions of "primary school" 小学 educators. He says that there is nothing in the universe more valuable than human beings, and, as educators of humans, teachers have a very import- ant place in society and bear a heavy responsibility (pp. 1‒2). Despite the government viewing primary school teachers as middle-rank bureaucrats who have great work- loads, few rewards, and scant power, they do in fact carry out work of very high responsibility. Even ordinary people fail to recognize the real merit of these teachers and, at best, pity them for their plight (pp. 2‒3). This inequality creates a feeling of unease for teachers causing them to view their careers as something which should be finished as early as possible, which leads them to the unsatisfactory situation of being poorly motivated for their work. Even though it is easy to reap excellent results in teaching, they find it difficult to commit themselves for life to teaching (p. 4). However, this type of teacher, one who is unmotivated, unin- spired, with narrow opinions, and merely mechanically repeats the contents of the sub- ject matter, lacks the "living eye" 活眼 of an educator and should really take up some other kind of job (p. 5). Such degenerate and narrow-minded teachers should be com- pared with high-minded teachers who enjoy their work and can give ample time to their students. These teachers are naturally endowed with moral personalities that give 4 INOUE Enryō 井上圓了.『教育的世界觀及人生觀 一名教育家安心論』[A pedagogical world-view and life-view: An educator's theory of mental peace] (Tokyo: 金港堂書籍, 1898). JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 78 rise to peaceful ways of teaching (p. 6). They can be called great educators who have a living eye and who look at nature as a great school and a large book that can guide us (p. 7). So, the sun and moon are instructors, mountains and rivers are teachers, and all beings in nature constitute an immense school. Teachers are the special representatives of heaven, earth and nature, and bear the responsibility for educating the members of society. This is why their work is a gift from heaven that leads us (p. 8). 2. Education and the Environment There is a series of trinities that can be seen in the whole of reality. When seen by the eyes of the philosopher this universe is philosophical, when seen by the eyes of the man of religion it is religious, when seen by the eyes of the educator it is educational (p. 9). There are three worlds within this universe: the natural world, the world of man and the world of the spirit. In a similar manner, there are three modes in education: education by nature, human education, and "spiritual" 精神的 education. And there are also three kinds of schools: the natural school, the human school and the spiritual school. Educators should work on human education at human schools. Primary school, high school and university are human schools. Education at school, education at home and education by friends are human schools. However, the education that human beings provide should be called the "small education" 小教育, and only education by nature should be called "great education" 大教育. If we divide the kinds of schools into three, then the spiritual school is the small school, the human school is middle school, and the natural school is the great school (p. 10). Education has a general and a strict meaning. Education in its strict sense has a fixed purpose, which is to intentionally influence human beings. Education in a general sense, which is provided by the universe at large, be it with a stated or non-stated meaning, be it direct or indirect, is forceful in its influence on and transformation of human character. In the following, Enryō outlines three different ways in which nature influences the human mind and the mentality of the people, i.e., through climate, land- scape, and flora and fauna. Because the education by the regional features of climate, landscape, and living nature is treated in detail below in General Theory of Education, it is omitted here. 3. Society and Education A fourth type of education by nature comes from human society, although sometimes it is not accepted as a kind of nature. As we have seen, Enryō considers three types of human education: home education, school education and education by friends. Other JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 79 types of social education should be considered as natural education because their main purpose is not to educate. Even though religion, politics, productive industry, and so on, may provide some education, they are not primarily designed as such. There are three types of natural education through society: industrial and artistic education; polit- ical and religious education; education in customs and manners (p. 24). Industrial and artistic education pertain to artificial means; while industry aims at practical use, art aims at pleasure and joy. Even though both have an influence on the human heart, the influence of communications and other services on the regions brings about remarkable changes. And the same can be said about production that has brought about a great change in the cost of living and life expectation. The influence of art on the human heart, even though not intended as a teaching, is strong and can be integ- rated into intentional human education (p. 25). This is why both industry and art can contribute to human education (p. 26). The influence of political and religious education on the human heart is very important, as can be seen in the pre-Restoration period from the diverse directives and instruction in each region. In the post-Restoration period, the relation with other nations and other political changes, such as local government systems or the opening of ports to trade, stimulate the spirit. As regards religion, even though it is usually thought of as pertaining to moral education, the education given at shrines, temples and churches can develop into physical education, intellectual training and moral education (p. 27). The repeated visit to shrines and temples, combined with adequate regulations can move many people to activities related to the acquisition of knowledge, the promo- tion of morals and physical education (pp. 28‒29). The relationship between education and customs and manners, for example, is given through three kinds of activities: (1) naming; (2) play and games; and (3) amuse- ment. In the case of naming, whenever a new member of the family is born, it is cus- tomary to give it a name. But naming is not restricted to such an event, as can be seen in the construction of a new bridge, the opening of a new road, the making of a ship, or the establishment of a village (p. 29). The event of naming is a kind of education that is given to the members of society because when naming is appropriate it can coincide with or reveal the special character of that which was named. In the second case, play has an enormous influence on education. Each society has two kinds of games: indoor and outdoor games. Indoor games can be further divided into games of strength and dexterity, games of intelligence and games of chance, or a combination of them (pp. JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 80 30‒31). The great variety of games and amusement undoubtedly have an influence on the three kinds of education, and this is why some games are preferred in a given soci- ety (p. 32). As a special type of social education Enryō also discusses gishiki 儀式 (ritual, cere- mony). Ritual comprises four main kinds: a) international; b) national; c) social; and d) religious. International ritual is usually carried out by kings visiting other kings, or ambassadors sent as State representatives to another country. State or national ritual usually comprises accession ceremonies, the promulgation of a constitution, the open- ing and closing of parliament sessions, the death of a ruler, and so on. Although these two kinds of ritual do not seem to involve individual citizens, they can motivate the emotions of patriotism and loyalty towards the State. The third kind of ritual comprises most social events such as birth, marriage, decease, and festivals, and involves whole families, parents and sons, relatives, friends and acquaintances in the strengthening of social relations. Other social rituals, such as O-bon お盆, new-year, the "five festive occasions" 五節句, illness, catastrophes, new jobs or job promotion, and so on, usually involve ceremonies (p. 33). The fourth kind is religious ritual, which sometimes is mixed with—and very difficult to distinguish from—social ritual. Such is the case of the birth of a new child, the death of a member of the family, and when relatives and friends get together for emotional and social support. Christianity has many religious rituals such as holy communion, baptism, and holy confession (p. 34). Buddhism also has some that strengthen the faith and morals of its followers. Religious rituals are related to mental training and moral education (p. 35). 4. Living Education Heaven and earth are our school, all things are our teachers and they conform to an infinite education by nature for each one of us. The whole natural world becomes for us an infinite book from which we learn. Nature is composed of "living things" 活物. If we overlook this fact, however, our school education becomes "dead learning" 死学. If we do not see that nature is a "living book" 活書, our books become dead letter. This means that if we do not have a "living eye" 活眼 we cannot read nature. In that case, dead learning captivates our heart. We need the living eye that allowed Jesus, the Buddha, Socrates, Newton and Darwin to learn from living nature. We should all develop such a living eye (pp. 36‒37). Even though our body is at the human school, if we look at the world with an open eye, our existence will be full of joy. "This is the JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 81 world-view of educators, [and this is also a] religious world-view" (p. 37). Here, the author is tempted to add that ideally we should read books and hear lectures with the same living eyes. On the basis of this appreciation of nature we develop a new model of the rela- tionship between human education and education by nature. On the one hand, nature does not intend to educate human beings, nor does it develop methods for such educa- tion (p. 38), and it does not adjust methods and means of education; rather, it contrib- utes unintentionally and wordlessly to the education of human beings. We do not learn from it how to choose good and to avoid evil. On the other hand, human education is intentional and conscious. Through it we learn freely to choose and to adjust means to ends, and to produce and advance our human knowledge. On the material side, educa- tion must depend on nature, and, on the side of choice and use, it must rely on artifice. Human intentions cannot be accomplished if nature is overlooked, which means that we require education by nature (p. 39). In this sense, school education is an aspect of our education by nature: the educator is a representative of the whole world who bears its full powers. This is why the task of the educator is not a mere occupational duty but rather, a heaven-sent and preordained mission, in which he should rejoice. The heavenly happiness of the educator should consist in that the wide universe, its great model and beautiful scenery (p. 40) constitute his garden, his cottage, and the sun, moon, stars and all things within the world are his relatives, his companions and friends. The educator has these infinite riches at hand and even if his home is made of reeds, his abode is this infinite garden in which he delights (p. 41). Unmoved by calamity, profit or loss, the greatest happiness of the educator is to become the pioneer and guide of the people (p. 42). If looking outside of ourselves we can speak of a natural school or of the school of nature, we can also look inside ourselves and talk about a school of the spirit. This is the world of our spirit, the world of our heart: it is a microcosm that encompasses all things, opens up a world and is a place for learning. Here the ideas drawn from our own past experience become our instructors and guides (p. 43). We can draw from the experience of past generations because the wider our time horizon, the greater our experience; when our ideas are unified and connected we can arrive at an idea which exceeds experience and get a glimpse of an infinite world (p. 44). Even if nowadays educators cannot be satisfied with the actual state of society, opening their own heart therein they should find peace and quiet (pp. 44‒45). Even if they are not recognized or loved by the world, they should find solace in their own spirit, taking inspiration from the words of the great educators of the past, such as Shakyamuni or Confucius (p. 45). JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 82 With a clear spirit and absolute ideas, the educator can become one with the universe and on the inner side of an ideal world find true happiness and joy (p. 46). Compared with this, the delights of the body, of eating and drinking are just momentary pleasures that fall short of true happiness (p. 47). Education by nature brings us into contact with infinite space, in which all things in the world become our teachers, while in spiritual education we become immersed in infinite time and all sages of the past unceasingly become our teachers (p. 47). Great learning embraces these two aspects, but it becomes small learning when it is fitted into particular programs for the students at school; the materials are taken from the great universe, but they are organized following the convenience of the schools. In this manner, educators are in the human world as representatives of the world of nature and of the spiritual world, but they can freely ramble among these three worlds (p. 48). There are three worlds educators should be acquainted with: an external world (or world of nature), a spiritual world, which must be cultivated within oneself, and a human world, which is shared with other human beings. The education concerning this world that is shared among human beings, or social education, needs some clarification (p. 49). Humans are living beings, rational and ideal and, among living beings, they are the most marvelous. Many people find interest and pleasure in cultivating trees, fishes and birds. Educators should find even greater interest and pleasure in their own occupation for they are educators of humanity. And to teach children should be most interesting, as they come with good character and great simplicity. Every word and image that impresses their mind is committed to memory and every attitude is unconsciously learned. Both word and image have a remarkable influence on their spirit. This is why they should be given materials for their memory, should be taught by examples and models for their character, and be assigned movements for their bodies (p. 50). Nowadays people think that educators dedicate themselves primarily to human education in human schools, but as great educators, they should represent universal "great learning" 大学, that is to say, the education of full human beings centered on the complementary union of knowledge and practice, which begins with the "investigation of things" 格物 and which, together with the cultivation of virtue fosters the "refinement of personality" 修身. This is the Confucian kernel of Enryo's advice to educators.5 5 Cf. Great Learning『大学』, 4‒5; "Inquiry Regarding the Great Learning," in The Philosophy of Wang Yang-ming, transl. by Frederick G. HENKE (Chicago: Open Court Publishing, 1916), 215. JACINTO IIR 2 (2014) | 83