“Per omnia saecula saeculorum” or “Inkaba yakho iphi?”: Indigeneity in Alex La Guma and Aidan Higgins James Gifford Fairleigh Dickinson University Both Alex La Guma, in relation to South Africa, and Aidan Higgins, in relation to 171 Ireland, stress a vital relationship between subjectivity and territory. Both also viv- idly bond social consciousness to an indigenous sense of rootedness in place, and for both it is a place of ancestors from which subjectivity emerges and to which it returns. This surprises given the metaphysical rather than materialist concepts with which this figuration aligns. They also share a complex decolonizing vision contextualized in both instances by the Marxist understandings of class and settler colonialism that shaped postcolonial discourses of the 1960s. Hence, this article draws on theories of indigeneity in contrast to theories of social conflict based on class to consider the importance of situatedness and belonging in two colonial and postcolonial novels of South Africa and Ireland. In Langrishe, Go Down (1966), Higgins presents the struggles of the Anglo-Irish Langrishe family in Ireland amidst their despairing col- lapse, but he does so in a postcolonial moment and in the generic conventions of the Big House novel. In contrast, La Guma’s In the Fog of the Seasons’ End (1972) vis- cerally depicts the struggle against apartheid in South Africa by coloured and black South Africans as well as the tensions between English and Afrikaner communi- ties. Both novels were written looking to the past, and a very specific moment in the past. Both also locate an indigenous identity in the bond to physical space: that is, a localist understanding of indigenous peoples in their traditional territories, which doubles as an ancestral bond marked in both books by a language that is not the author’s mother-tongue, Latin and isiXhosa. For Higgins, Imogen Langrishe’s deep bond to the land emerges in Latin after her sister Helen’s failed attempt at integra- tion, and for La Guma we see Elias Tekwane’s indigeneity expressed in isiXhosa. For both, this bond reflects a materialist understanding of conflict and change, yet in the same moment it expresses a metaphysical identification with ancestors and situated- Canadian Review of Comparative Literature / Revue Canadienne de Littérature Comparée crcl june 2015 juin rclc 0319–051x/15/42.2/171 © Canadian Comparative Literature Association crcl june 2015 juin rclc ness in territory. The language inheres in a tradition that is bound to ancestors and the repetition of ancestors in the land despite the macro-level materialist discourse of class conflict emerging from economic conditions. Moreover, both authors wrote their respective novels during an absence from the homeland. It is more surprising, though, that both books first developed in South Africa: Higgins’s novel was first sketched during his time in South Africa and Zimbabwe, and La Guma’s was only completed during his exile. This article argues for an overlapping notion of indigeneity in their works articu- lated using critical Aboriginal Studies while exploring the materialist emergence of identity. The key tension, then, is not between both authors’ progressive politics nor the real differences between their Irish and South African settings—the tension is the in-betweenness of their shared difficulty articulating a form of indigeneity and artistic expression that does not conflict with a materialist history and the theoretical precepts of their anticolonial vision. This is to say, both La Guma and Higgins work 172 to express a metaphysical localist understanding of indigeneity while retaining the characteristically materialist notions of decolonization of the 1960s. Rather than a faulty logic, this understanding of colonialism and indigeneity is plural and reflects the “in-between” nature of their experiences. Transplanting/Translating Discourses of Indigeneity Much critical discourse on indigeneity has relied on the political and juridical apparatus of the over-determining state and accompanying forms of economic development.1 In American Indian studies, the cosmopolitan/nationalist conflict reflects this,2 and it is most recently visible in Sean Glen Coulthard’s Red Skin, White Masks, which uses Fanon’s materialist discourse amidst localist indigeneity. In an Australasian context, David Welchman Gegeo provides a strong example of the emphasis on legal status through customary ownership in Malaita against the legal fiction of terra nullius, although the bonds of spiritual kinship and a metaphysical bond to place remain present: First and foremost, place (kula ni fuli, literally, “place situated in source,” that is, place of one’s existential foundation) in this context refers to the geographical or physi- cal location of Kwara’ae district on Malaita. Second, place refers to genealogy, that is, one’s location in a Kwara’ae kin group, both in the present and reaching backward and forward in time. Third, place means having land or the unconditional right of access to land in Kwara’ae through genealogy and marriage. (493) Apart from the basis of Gegeo’s argument in the place/space conflict that emerges as Kwara’ae populations migrate, the emphasis remains clearly on the embeddedness of the indigenous in land and the relational bond between generations that forms James Gifford | indiGeneity in alex la Guma and aidan HiGGins a metaphysical belonging to kin and ancestors beyond the typical operation of the difficult word “culture.” For this context, indigeneity, ethnicity, and culture do not operate as synonyms nor as metonyms for the same subjectivity. In a kindred yet contrasting fashion in the Canadian First Nations context, Len Findlay has given a characteristically provocative exhortation to “Always Indigenize!” that again takes up the juridical and political implication of indigeneity as inhering in the vital bond to the land that goes beyond mere residency: In the (human) beginning was the Indigene. This hypothesis is a necessary but inscrutable pretext for the historical and current distribution of our species in diverse groupings across the globe. With oral and written histories of a recoverable past have come difference and conflict, competing versions of residency, conquest, settlement, entitlement, and the limited circulation and decidedly mixed benefits of Indigenous status. It seems fair to say that all communities live as, or in relation to, Indigenes. (Findlay 308) Nonetheless, the language here, if not Findlay’s implication, returns to such matters 173 as conflictual claims to indigeneity or possession of a particular place. The conflict then is between “kula ni fuli, literally, ‘place situated in source,’ that is, place of one’s existential foundation” (Gegeo 493) and the materialist assertion that “there is no hors-Indigène, no geopolitical or psychic setting, no real or imagined terra nul- lius free from the satisfactions and unsettlements of Indigenous (pre)occupation” (Findlay 309). As Findlay realizes, the conflict is politically unproductive, and hence he shifts his own project to “a strategically indeterminate provocation to thought and action” (309), on which ground the English Studies in Canada 2004 Readers’ Forums dedicated to responses proves his provocation—most other critics simply set the two matters beside each other without considering their potential incompatibilities. That is, the juridical and political processes that permit a challenge to settler colonialism stand in contrast to the same indigenous epistemologies and relational ontologies nurtured from the bond to land. Highly kindred conflicts have emerged in geographical and political analyses of indigeneity and western knowledge systems more generally beyond those of class conflict and social change. Ana Deumert takes up the conceptual problem of migra- tion and explains that “In the South African context, moving from the village to the city does not imply a decisive move from one place to another, but rather the opening up of a new place/home without abandoning the previous place/home. Thus, rural- urban migration is…a series of interlocking, shuffling movements” (55). Because of this interlocking spatiality and anchor to ancestral space, “the village remains for many the ‘true’ home, the place of the forefathers where important ancestral rituals are practiced. The urban home is always second to the rural home as cultural ritu- als have to be performed at the place of origin in order to be meaningful” (55). As a symptomatic overlap, however, we see the “moving targets” of increasingly deter- ritorialized indigenes taken up by Breckenridge and Appadurai (i) as well as the generalized homelessness expressed by Edward Said of “exile [as] the unhealable rift crcl june 2015 juin rclc forced between a human being and a native place, between the self and its true home” (49) without falling victim to the “spatial incarceration of the native” identified by Liisa Malkki (28-31). Most recently, Sarah Hunt has contrasted her experiences as a Kwakwaka’wakw scholar inhabiting both scholarly and communal spaces, leading her to suggest “The situatedness and place-specific nature of Indigenous knowledge calls for the validation of new kinds of theorizing and new epistemologies that can account for situated, relational Indigenous knowledge and yet remain engaged with broader theoretical debates” (Hunt 31). Like Findlay’s, this “engagement” permits overlapping and contradictory knowledge systems to productively work together. In the introduction they give to the same issue, Emilie Cameron, Sarah de Leeuw, and Caroline Desbiens more directly challenge critical reluctance to use “accounts of Indigenous knowledges and practices as evidence of ontological pluralism and as sources of new modes of thought” (Cameron 19), which leads them to bolster the “new kinds of theorizing” called for by Hunt as relational yet “engaged with broader 174 theoretical debates.”3 Such a relational engagement between indigenous studies and theories of class conflict rely, for Hunt’s geographical interests, in the situatedness of the different discourses, much as both Higgins and La Guma rely on rearticulat- ing indigeneity in a non-indigenous art form: the novel. Hunt contends, in relation to her own experience moving between sites of knowledge exchange, “it must also be asked what it means for Indigenous knowledge to be moved from spaces of lived Indigenous governance and culture, such as a potlatch ceremony, to a conference session on ontology with very few Indigenous people and little space for Indigenous methods of teaching and learning” (Hunt 31)? The death of metanarratives would be, in this instance, not a result of postmodernism per se but also the plurality of situated epistemologies. To the point, the re-articulation of liberation and speech also risks ventriloquism and silencing. By proxy, my use here of specific theories of indigeneity for an analysis outside of their culturally and indigenously embedded context must acknowledge the limitation of transplanting or translating such materials to the South African and Irish contexts under analysis. Caught up with but also distinct from the tension between situatedness in land and conflict between social classes (both of which may be used to analyze the materials here, though I contend both are insufficient on their own) is the nation state and the notion of independence articulated only within its larger paradigm, which has infiltrated both discourses of indigeneity and decolo- nization. As Maia Ramnath notices, the operations of state power observed in the racism and colonialism to which both La Guma and Higgins respond also reflect the operations of state power domestically: “A restive or insurgent colony was even better than a pacified one as a laboratory for states to develop their military, bureaucratic, disciplinary, policing, and surveillance capabilities. Here administrators tested new techniques for future application to domestic security in the metropole” (18). In this sense, embeddedness in land or the unity of heterogenous groups in overarching categories of class may risk the articulation of localist experiences through the over- James Gifford | indiGeneity in alex la Guma and aidan HiGGins determining context of the state or nation-state, such that “The nationalist fairy tale culminates in the marriage of (spiritual) nation and (physical) state” (Ramnath 20). Again, as with Findlay’s “strategically indeterminate provocation,” the challenge is in this spiritual/material conflict, and again, the matter is largely resolved by setting the challenges beside each other. As noted, Coulthard addresses this problem in detail, relying on Marx’s primitive accumulation thesis and Fanon’s understanding of race and class in decolonization while also contending “one of the most significant differ- ences that exist between Indigenous and Western metaphysics revolves around the central importance of land to Indigenous modes of being” (60). Indeed, Coulthard sees “the position that land occupies as an ontological framework for understanding relationships” (60), which leads him via Peter Kulchyski to distinguish disposses- sion in temporal (Western) versus spatial (Indigenous) terms—yet, the materialist/ metaphysical conflict remains juxtaposed not resolved. The emergence of subjec- tivity from a spiritually vital and relational entanglement with locale and kinship then positions itself in symmetry with social constructivist ideas of the subject as 175 constituted through conflicting material forces understood through class. And in fiction, both Aidan Higgins and Alex La Guma do precisely this—they permit the two conceptualizations (materialist and metaphysical) to co-exist as a reflection of their own lived in-betweenness, within which these conflicted bases for subjectivity co-exist in parallax. Obscured Place In the Fog La Guma’s In the Fog of the Seasons’ End presents the anti-apartheid struggle in a progressive context leading to what is implicitly a violent revolutionary movement at the end of the novel when the escaping ANC activists move to Zimbabwe for insurgency training. Their increasing consciousness of their class position becomes the fuel for revolutionary change. La Guma was an executive member of the South African Coloured People’s Organization and a member of the Communist Party following his union organizing activities. He went into exile in 1966 after trials, imprisonment, and house arrest, after which he became the chief representative in the Caribbean of the African National Congress (Field, Alex 55, 49, 164). The basis for the book derives from La Guma’s anti-apartheid work in the ANC, incarcera- tions, and his own deep Marxist beliefs (Field, Alex 183; Balutansky 82, 106). The same themes play out across La Guma’s writing career from short stories to novels. Across In the Fog of the Seasons’ End, the fate of an unnamed torture victim in the opening chapter causes much tension for readers who are unsure if the victim is the protagonist Beukes or his close colleague Elias Tekwane (also called Hazel). Both are, of course, false names used to protect real individuals in La Guma’s at least par- tially historical novel, and both names carry allusive weight. While the protagonist Beukes is mixed-race, his double in the novel, Elias Tekwane, is amaXhosa. In La crcl june 2015 juin rclc Guma’s narrative, set around the 21 March 1960 Sharpeville massacre, “Hazel was the code name for Elias Tekwane. When he was born his mother had really named him after his great-grandfather, but…the missionary, who always found it difficult to pronounce indigenous names, had said ‘We’ll call him Elias’” (La Guma 72). This continuous renaming away from his indigenous name, twice over, implicitly reflects the settler practices of displacement and recasting of indigeneity as deviance. Nonetheless, despite the economic inequalities and racial segregation that the char- acter experiences, La Guma uses kinship and repeated images to bind Elias to the land itself and his ancestors’ embeddedness in locality: “Elias could not remember his father…. News arrived that Tekwane had been killed in a mining accident near Johannesburg; he was buried hundreds of feet below ground, deeper than any of his ancestors had been buried” (La Guma 73). The trope repeats several times, and in Elias’s work crew, a man remarks on wanting to attend a funeral for “my brother who has joined the ancestors” (124). As the scene continues to juxtapose descriptions of 176 ancestral values against the lived experience of apartheid (76-77, 81-82), “The blood stirred in [Elias] in spite of the torpor, and his mind switched to the tales told by the old people of the village, of the battles fought by their ancestors” (124). The effect is a shutter between ancestral embeddedness in the land understood spiritually, set in obversion to material exploitation understood through Marxist materialism and the economic conditions that give rise to the superstructural ideology of racism4—Elias moves between his blood in the ancestral land to the class struggle, shuttling between the two ever more rapidly as the novel moves to its conclusion. Even as Elias grows into a labour organizing position and a mode of social awareness founded on African Socialism drawn from the South African Communist Party and Congress of South African Trade Unions in the African National Congress, his new role and life in the city are expressed through the spiritual bond to place and ancestors, which marks his indigeneity as distinct from his class position.5 The emphasis on class-based analyses in this body of criticism distracts critics from the vital importance of indigeneity to the same scenes and others in La Guma’s oeuvre. Cecil Abrahams describes the novel’s interests, such as counter-revolutionary bourgeois freedom, in clearly Marxist terms: “Like the artisans and the lower middle classes that have succeeded in rising slightly above the living standards of the major- ity of their compatriots in the urban slums and ghettoes, many of the oppressed care little about the plight of the majority and instead wrap themselves inside a cocoon of unreality” (110). In a kindred vein, Nahem Yousaf contends La Guma’s “characters very clearly move from a position of unfocused individualism to collective strength, from impotent anger to oblique theorizing about their subordinate positions, before finally arriving at the epiphanic realization that tyranny must be met with collective resistance, even violent resistance” (132). These sentiments find their most explicit expression in David Maughan Brown’s contention that the novel “locates revolution- ary activity firmly in the economic and social conditions of the people rather than in the individual’s reaction to his or her personal experience of oppression” (21). James Gifford | indiGeneity in alex la Guma and aidan HiGGins Jabulani Mkhize cements the framework by convincingly expressing how the early novels were suggestive of Georg Lukács’s assertion that ‘in any protest against particular social conditions, these conditions themselves must have the central place’ in the narrative, [but] in [In the Fog of the Seasons’ End] it is as though La Guma is saying: now that you have learnt about the socio-economic conditions that the oppressed have to contend with…., interest in this work lies in the forces working towards the chang- ing of the status quo rather than in the exposition of the social contradictions of racial capitalism as such. (Mkhize 915) The most recent reinforcement of the point appears when Roger Field argues the novel shows “more advanced and politically developed Marxists…. [who see] that race as a social construct and economic exploitation are intimately connected” (Alex 183). La Guma’s insistence on a Marxist paradigm for discussing decolonization and the anti- apartheid movement is abundantly clear in both his works and the critical literature, as is the nuanced and theoretically informed nature of this insistence and its move- ment toward collective rather than individualist action. That it developed during the 177 growth of Marxist literature of decolonization, such as Frantz Fanon’s and Albert Memmi’s works, should be expected since this was the dominant paradigm of the moment prior to the Foucauldian expansion of postcolonial criticism by Edward Said later in the decade, moving to institutional forms from class conflicts. However, by developing the critical discourse in this manner, critics find that the parallel “bour- geois” or what might even be called by some “primitive” or “pre-modern” notions of indigeneity become a scotoma, a blind-spot that we cannot squint around to notice in their vitality and recurring importance to the novel. Indeed, for Mkhize, “Tekwane is initially a naïve country boy whose father dies in the mines” and “his subsequent actions are not guided by political consciousness until he meets a fellow prisoner, Mdlaka,…. [who] serves as his political mentor [and] recruits him to the movement” (Mkhize 921). This understanding of the novel’s most poetic descriptions as naïve is striking, particularly because of the adeptness of Mkhize’s reading and deep sympa- thies for the aesthetic functions and formal traits of the text. Hence, contrasting his description against the novel’s depiction of indigeneity, land, and kinship traces out the scotoma that such a view induces. In Elias Tekwane’s rise in labour organization as a part of the anti-apartheid move- ment (which really must be understood in the Marxist terms outlined above), he also relocates or re-indigenizes himself in the city rather than the country in a manner that does not comfortably work in the materialist paradigm: Elias had not returned to the countryside after that. He felt that the brown, eroded land, the little dwellings on the scrubby hillside held little for him. Besides, his blood had dripped onto the hard grey surface of a city sidewalk, and it was as if it had taken root and held him there…. Elias recalled the warmth of the pavement against his face and the smell of dust as he lay there. (La Guma 132-133) This moment, and several subsequent involving land and blood, may be understood through the amaXhosa question Inkaba yakho iphi?, where is your navel? Following crcl june 2015 juin rclc on the tradition of burying the afterbirth, the query calls for the ancestral place of belonging, affiliation, status, and social identity (Midgley 40). Elias’s bond to the land arises from this indigenous understanding of belonging, just as he is tied to the land by his father’s burial and again bound to the city after his blood mingles with the place. These are not naïvely misunderstood moments of class conflict confused by a false consciousness of indigeneity—they are a parallel indigenous epistemology on an equal footing with the proletarian epistemology, and La Guma cultivates both in the novel for the reader. Amidst the organization of labour and the struggle to nur- ture revolutionary change through an overturning of the class struggle by the rise of the proletariat, the novel repeatedly imagines the spiritual bond between indigenous populations, embeddedness, and land. And despite the contradictory nature of these two knowledge systems, they coexist in La Guma’s narrative. This spiritual element of indigeneity, a rootedness in place and deep bond to the earth, then frames our understanding as readers of the novel’s gruesome depiction 178 of Elias’s bloody torture and death. In a flashback to the same work detail in Elias’s past in which he meets and is radicalized by Mdlaka, “A man who had gone over to wake [Tsatsu] had come back saying, ‘He is not asleep. He has gone to his ancestors, and may they receive him with more kindness than he has met with in this world.’ The old man had lain on the heap of rubble like a bundle of discarded old clothes” (La Guma 156). The repetition of ancestors and the corpse’s entanglement with “rubble” (suggesting he is of the land itself rather than merely an inhabitant) would be only a further emphasis of the importance of ancestors and land to the amaXhosa, except that the same man and image repeat during Elias’s torture (172) and again during his death. The imagery repeats in tandem with “the ghosts gathered” and “the ghosts drifted along the hazy horizon and beckoned to him to come to join them” (173). In this manner, Elias’s blood on the floor during his torture mingles thematically with the blood that binds him to the city and the rubble of the old man entangling him with the land itself, just as Elias’s blood marks the country space, the village where he was born, and the kin to and of whom he was born. To make this blending clear, La Guma describes how for Elias while dying “the smell of dust on the paving was in his nostrils; blood trickled into his neck from his scalp where the policeman’s club had caught him on the morning of the strike meeting” (173), and as he drifts to uncon- sciousness during his torture while remembering this previous strike (poignantly recalled in the present tense), his mind returns to the locations of his youth: his home village as the answer to Inkabe yakho iphi? Where is your navel? Then, set off in its own paragraph, La Guma presents “Uya kuhlasela-pi na? Where wilt thou now wage war? The ghosts of his ancestors beckoned from afar” (174) as free indirect discourse, and as Elias lies dying the same shifting language from isiXhosa to English recurs with the image of his return to his ancestors, for “Far, far, his ancestors gathered on the misty horizon, their spears sparkling like diamonds in the exploding sun” (175). If we fail to link the scenes and their thematic import, La Guma reminds us as read- ers to James Gifford | indiGeneity in alex la Guma and aidan HiGGins Think of something, the pain said; something in which you believe, like love. Old Tsatsu was dead on a heap of rubble by the road, a collapsed dummy, something unimportant left aside. ‘He is not asleep but gone to his ancestors’…. Far down in the darkness, darker than any tomb, another miner was dispersed beyond recognition under infinite tons of fallen rock and gold. (La Guma 172) Hence, the bodies in the ground, including his father’s in the mine that he ostensibly does not even remember, just as with the buried afterbirth of Elias’s entry to the world, all frame the meaning of his life blood spilling again into the ground as a repetition of how he had bled while beginning his path in underground anti-apartheid labour organizing. The spiritual element of his relation between blood and earth expands this time because it occurs in service of a revolutionary decolonization movement predicated on materialist understandings of class, though the spiritual meanings are in ample evidence in the same moment. 179 Langrishe, Go Down to the Earth Higgins presents a marked contrast to La Guma. His writing career developed after Irish independence (Higgins was born five years after independence), he eschews overt politics, and his work takes up the indigenization of the Anglo-Irish settler population through religious conversion and ever-increasing bonds (and failures to integrate) to the land itself. Langrishe, Go Down is his most famous work and grows from the influence of James Joyce and Samuel Beckett. It predates In the Fog of the Seasons’ End by only six years, and both books have overlapping composition peri- ods. In the novel, Higgins blurs together several Irish landscapes while drawing on a heteroglossic range of competing and contradicting narrative voices. These two qualities—uniquely Irish locales and layer upon layer of narrative perspective—are attributed to Higgins’s admiration for and emulation of Joyce,6 but the initial drafts for the novel in Higgins’s notebooks emphatically root the novel’s sense of place in his experiences in South Africa. This is a detail that has, to date, eluded critical stud- ies of his works.7 In these early drafts, Higgins’s “Irish” sketches are interspersed with observations of the landscapes around him in South Africa and Zimbabwe as well as the populations with which he was in close contact, often with sketches of Irish and African peoples and localities literally recto/verso or on facing pages— in the manuscripts from 1956-1960, Ireland and Africa are intimately entwined.8 This reconfigures Langrishe, Go Down by emphasizing its international origins and method of composition. These textual bonds between South Africa and Ireland reconstruct critical perspectives on the novel’s politics. The novel’s origins in South Africa and the importance of these images in its development also suggest a broader cultural context of decolonization and apartheid-era race politics, which inform and run parallel to his novel’s representations of the decay and decline of the Anglo-Irish Ascendancy following independence in 1922 amidst a deep struggle over how popu- crcl june 2015 juin rclc lations belong to the land and claim indigeneity or belonging. Higgins traveled through Africa in a marionette troupe in the 1950s and spent two years in South Africa. During this period, he first sketched the materials that became Langrishe, Go Down as a novel, and my comments here are based on several weeks working through the extraordinary Higgins fonds of the University of Victoria Libraries. The same materials sit behind the 1960 short story “Killachter Meadow,” which preceded but overlaps with Langrishe, Go Down. His composition method focuses on rich epigrammatic jottings that begin to develop into character and landscape sketches, often taken from one place and put to a different use elsewhere. These early expostulations and epigrams are mined or quarried for materials devel- oped more fully in later, larger projects. Moreover, Higgins reuses the notebooks for autobiographical data, such that “Fiction is frequently reinvented as autobiography, and vice versa, until it becomes apparent that Higgins sees little difference between the two” (Murphy 16). As an instance, he recalls acquiring a copy of Djuna Barnes’s 180 Ryder while in South Africa, which he had been unable to procure in Europe: But, lo, an African postman glistening with honest sweat came ambling up the path, taking from his postbag a neat package which he held up and called Bwana Higgings. It was a rare find. Basil Fogarty, a Scot with a bookstore in Port Elizabeth, had traced and procured the unprocurable—an American first edition of Djuna Barnes’ 1938 [sic] novel Ryder (Horace Liveright of New York). He had lain his hands on a novel I had been after for years. (Higgins, Donkey’s 262) In this relatively simple example, we see allusions in the novel (to Barnes and Ryder) deriving from notes in the South African diaries that become the draft for Langrishe, Go Down, and again resurfacing in the autobiography years later. When Ryder becomes identified as Helen’s book in the notebook drafts for Langrishe, Go Down, the political import of her Ascendary class position and the role of allusion in the novel become clear (Higgins, “Notebook 3.1” n.pag).9 A trend emerges in these notebooks. Higgins’s experiences in South Africa are recorded, and his notebooks function much like commonplace books in which he records scraps of other books and poems. These landscape visions of South Africa, his own experiences, and his sketches then become landscape scenes of Ireland, which are later revised into Langrishe, Go Down (Higgins 84), such as Killachter Meadow (Higgins, “Notebook 3.1” n.pag).10 These landscape observations also blur into ethnography, and just as he blurs the Langrishe sisters into the Irish landscape (their colours and lives rising very literally from the land, just as they stand over the grave and ponder the Irish earth they will return to), he also sketches African characters in the same notebooks and draws their imagery from the land, comparing the indigenous amaXhosa populations to the earth itself, the roots embedded in the earth, and the vegetative fruit of the soil (Higgins, “Notebook” 3.1)—the passage, marked 20 July 1960, with a sketch of the African population described as part of the earth, is preceded by and faces the draft of the passage that becomes in Langrishe, Go Down the “pond in Killadoon” (169), both of which fall only a page after the draft