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INFECTIOUS ABORTION AND ASSOCIATED RISK FACTORS IN DAIRY CATTLE FARMS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA TEQUIERO ABUOM OKUMU BVM, M.SC. (University of Nairobi) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Clinical Studies) University of Nairobi Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Clinical Studies 2014 I DECLARATION This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university __________________________________________ Tequiero Abuom Okumu, BVM, MSc. This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as university supervisors Supervisors Prof. NJENGA M. J. (B.V.M., M Sc., Ph.D.) Signed: ______________________Date: _______________ Prof. WABACHA J. K. (B.V.M., M Sc., Ph.D.) Signed: ______________________Date: _______________ DR. TSUMA V. T. (B.V.M., Dip Anim. Reprod., FRVCS., Ph.D.) Signed: ______________________Date: _______________ DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI Prof. JOHN VANLEEUWEN ( D.V.M., M.Sc., Ph.D.) Signed: ________________________Date _________________ ATLANTIC VETERINARY COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND II DEDICATION To My wife Damaris and my family, The Okumu’s III TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... II DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. III TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. IX LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. XI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... XIV ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ XV CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... - 1 - 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... - 1 - CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................... - 3 - 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. - 3 - 2.1 Bovine viral diarhoea (BVD) ............................................................................................ - 6 - 2.2 Brucellosis ......................................................................................................................... - 9 - 2.3 Neosporosis ..................................................................................................................... - 10 - 2.4 Hypothesis....................................................................................................................... - 13 - 2.5 Overall objective ............................................................................................................. - 13 - 2.6 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... - 13 - 2.7 Justification ..................................................................................................................... - 14 - CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................ - 15 - 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................... - 15 - 3.1 Study area ........................................................................................................................ - 15 - 3.2 Selection of study farms and animals ............................................................................. - 16 - 3.3 Study design .................................................................................................................... - 17 - 3.3.1 Prevalence survey .................................................................................................................. - 17 - 3.3.2 Prospective study ................................................................................................................... - 17 - IV 3.3.3 Sample analysis ..................................................................................................................... - 19 - 3.3.3.1 Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) ................................................................................ - 20 - 3.3.3.2 Brucella abortus ................................................................................................................. - 22 - 3.3.3.3 Neospora caninum .............................................................................................................. - 24 - 3.3.3.4 Sampling of dogs for Neospora caninum ........................................................................... - 25 - 3.4 Data management ............................................................................................................ - 25 - 3.4.1 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................. - 26 - CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... - 28 - 4 SEROPREVALENCE AND RISK FACTORS OF BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA VIRUS, Brucella abortus AND Neospora caninum ANTIBODIES IN DAIRY CATTLE HERDS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA ................................................. - 28 - 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 28 - 4.1.1 Bovine Viral Diarrhoea ......................................................................................................... - 29 - 4.1.2 Brucellosis ......................................................................................................................... - 31 - 4.1.3 Neosporosis ......................................................................................................................... - 32 - 4.2 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.1 Study area ......................................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.2 Selection of study farms and animals .................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.3 Data and sample collection. ................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.3 Sample handling and laboratory analysis ........................................................................ - 34 - 4.4 Data management and analysis ....................................................................................... - 35 - 4.4.1 Data management .................................................................................................................. - 35 - 4.4.2 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................. - 35 - 4.5 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 35 - 4.5.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 35 - 4.5.1.1 Response rate and number of animals selected into the study............................................ - 35 - 4.5.1.2 Animal variables ................................................................................................................. - 36 - 4.5.1.3 Feeding system ................................................................................................................... - 36 - V 4.5.1.4 Breeding methods ............................................................................................................... - 36 - 4.5.1.5 Vaccination ......................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.1.6 Reproductive history .......................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.1.7 Seroprevalence results ........................................................................................................ - 37 - 4.5.2 Disease variables ................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.2.1 BVDV ......................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.2.2 Neospora caninum .............................................................................................................. - 38 - 4.5.2.3 Brucella abortus ................................................................................................................. - 39 - 4.5.2.4 Interrelationship between diseases ..................................................................................... - 41 - 4.5.2.5 Regression analysis of risk factors ..................................................................................... - 41 - 4.6 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 43 - 4.7 Conclusion and recommendations .................................................................................. - 48 - CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................... - 49 - 5 SEROEPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF Neospora caninum AND ITS RISK FACTORS IN FARM DOGS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA ............................... - 49 - 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 49 - 5.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... - 51 - 5.2.1 Study area ......................................................................................................................... - 51 - 5.2.2 Farm and animal selection ..................................................................................................... - 51 - 5.2.3 Sample collection, handling, and laboratory analysis ........................................................... - 51 - 5.3 Data collection, management and analysis ..................................................................... - 52 - 5.3.1 Analytical statistics ................................................................................................................ - 53 - 5.4 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 53 - 5.4.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 53 - 5.4.2 Chi-squared analyses of risk factors ...................................................................................... - 54 - 5.4.3 Regression analysis of risk factors ........................................................................................ - 56 - 5.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 56 - VI CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................... - 60 - 6 THE EFFECT OF BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA VIRUS, Brucella abortus AND Neospora caninum ON THE INCIDENCE OF ABORTION/FOETAL LOSS IN DAIRYCATTLE HERDS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA .................................... - 60 - 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 60 - 6.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... - 64 - 6.2.1 Selection of study farms and animals .................................................................................... - 64 - 6.2.2 Sample handling and laboratory analysis .............................................................................. - 64 - 6.3 Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................... - 65 - 6.3.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 65 - 6.3.2 Analytical statistics ................................................................................................................ - 66 - 6.4 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 67 - 6.4.1.1 Animals selected and monitored in the study ..................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1.2 Animal variables ................................................................................................................. - 67 - 6.4.1.3 Location ......................................................................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1.4 Feeding system ................................................................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1.5 Breeding methods ............................................................................................................... - 68 - 6.4.1.6 Reproductive history .......................................................................................................... - 68 - 6.4.2 Abortion incidence ................................................................................................................ - 68 - 6.4.2.1 Univariable associations with abortion............................................................................... - 69 - 6.4.2.2 Stage of foetal loss.............................................................................................................. - 72 - 6.4.2.3 Incidence rates of NC, BVD and BA ................................................................................. - 73 - 6.4.2.4 Infections vs foetal loss ...................................................................................................... - 73 - 6.4.3 Regression analysis ............................................................................................................... - 74 - 6.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 75 - CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................................ - 78 - VII 7 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES RELATED TO BOVINE ABORTION AND FOETAL LOSS AMONG ANIMAL HEALTH SERVICE PROVIDERS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA ...................... - 78 - 7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 78 - 7.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... - 80 - 7.2.1 Study area and population ..................................................................................................... - 80 - 7.2.2 Data collection ....................................................................................................................... - 80 - 7.2.3 Data management and analysis ............................................................................................. - 81 - 7.2.3.1 Data management ............................................................................................................... - 81 - 7.2.3.2 Descriptive statistics ........................................................................................................... - 81 - 7.2.3.3 Analytical statistics ............................................................................................................. - 81 - 7.3 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 82 - 7.3.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 82 - 7.3.2 Comparison of the level of training with knowledge and practices on bovine abortion ....... - 83 - 7.3.3 Comparison of the years of experience against perceptions and management of bovine abortion ......................................................................................................................... - 87 - 7.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 90 - CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................................... - 95 - 8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... - 95 - REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... - 97 - APPENDICES - 118 - APPENDIX 1 FARMERS’ SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................ - 118 - APPENDIX 2 VETERINARIANS AND PARAVETERINARIANS SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................................................................... - 120 - APPENDIX 3 INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL FOLLOW-UP RECORD ............................................ - 121 - VIII LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics and univariable associations between seropositivity to BVDV, NC and BA their risk factors in among dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya, 2010……………………………………………...………………...- 41 - Table 5.1 Descriptive statistics and univariable association between seropositivity for Neospora caninum and epidemiological data for 84 dogs on 53 dairy farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010 ..................................................................... - 55 - Table 6.1 Distribution of foetal loss (n=31) by parity in dairy cattle farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011 ......................................................................... - 70 - Table 6.2 Stage of gestation of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................... - 72 - Table 6.3 Kaplan-Meier output on stage/time of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle herds in Nakuru District, Kenya ..................................................................... - 72 - Table 6.4 Distribution of infections associated with foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya, 2010-2011 ........................................................... - 74 - Table 6.5 Multivariable regression analysis of risk factors for foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya............................................................ - 74 - Table 5.1 Descriptive statistics and univariable association between seropositivity for Neospora caninum and epidemiological data for 84 dogs on 53 dairy farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010……………………………………………- 56 - IX Table 6.1 Distribution of foetal loss (n=31) by parity in dairy cattle farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011…… ................................................................ .- 71 - Table 6.2 Stage of gestation of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011………………………………………………………- 73 - Table 6.3 Kaplan-Meier output on stage/time of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle herds in Nakuru District, Kenya…………………………………………- 73 - Table 6.4 Distribution of infections associated with foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya, 2010-2011……………………………..………- 75 - Table 6.5 Multivariable regression analysis of risk factors for foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya…………………………………….- 75 - Table 7.1 Distribution of knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine abortion by level of training among animal health service providers in Nakuru District, 2010- 86- Table 7.2 Distribution of knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine abortion by years of practicing experience among animal health service providers in Nakuru District, 2010…………………..…………………………………………..- 89 - X

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Several methods have been developed to detect BVDV infection in cattle (OIE manual, 2008) also provide an estimate of the abortion incidence that is occurring. Each well was then washed with 300 μl of phosphate buffered
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Infectious abortion and associated risk factors in dairy cattle farms in Nakuru district, Kenya PDF

139 Pages·2014·0.77 MB·English
by  Tequiero Abuom Okumu
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INFECTIOUS ABORTION AND ASSOCIATED RISK FACTORS IN DAIRY CATTLE FARMS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA TEQUIERO ABUOM OKUMU BVM, M.SC. (University of Nairobi) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Clinical Studies) University of Nairobi Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Clinical Studies 2014 I DECLARATION This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university __________________________________________ Tequiero Abuom Okumu, BVM, MSc. This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as university supervisors Supervisors Prof. NJENGA M. J. (B.V.M., M Sc., Ph.D.) Signed: ______________________Date: _______________ Prof. WABACHA J. K. (B.V.M., M Sc., Ph.D.) Signed: ______________________Date: _______________ DR. TSUMA V. T. (B.V.M., Dip Anim. Reprod., FRVCS., Ph.D.) Signed: ______________________Date: _______________ DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI Prof. JOHN VANLEEUWEN ( D.V.M., M.Sc., Ph.D.) Signed: ________________________Date _________________ ATLANTIC VETERINARY COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND II DEDICATION To My wife Damaris and my family, The Okumu’s III TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... II DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. III TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. IX LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. XI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................. XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... XIV ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ XV CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... - 1 - 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... - 1 - CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................... - 3 - 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. - 3 - 2.1 Bovine viral diarhoea (BVD) ............................................................................................ - 6 - 2.2 Brucellosis ......................................................................................................................... - 9 - 2.3 Neosporosis ..................................................................................................................... - 10 - 2.4 Hypothesis....................................................................................................................... - 13 - 2.5 Overall objective ............................................................................................................. - 13 - 2.6 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... - 13 - 2.7 Justification ..................................................................................................................... - 14 - CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................ - 15 - 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................... - 15 - 3.1 Study area ........................................................................................................................ - 15 - 3.2 Selection of study farms and animals ............................................................................. - 16 - 3.3 Study design .................................................................................................................... - 17 - 3.3.1 Prevalence survey .................................................................................................................. - 17 - 3.3.2 Prospective study ................................................................................................................... - 17 - IV 3.3.3 Sample analysis ..................................................................................................................... - 19 - 3.3.3.1 Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) ................................................................................ - 20 - 3.3.3.2 Brucella abortus ................................................................................................................. - 22 - 3.3.3.3 Neospora caninum .............................................................................................................. - 24 - 3.3.3.4 Sampling of dogs for Neospora caninum ........................................................................... - 25 - 3.4 Data management ............................................................................................................ - 25 - 3.4.1 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................. - 26 - CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... - 28 - 4 SEROPREVALENCE AND RISK FACTORS OF BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA VIRUS, Brucella abortus AND Neospora caninum ANTIBODIES IN DAIRY CATTLE HERDS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA ................................................. - 28 - 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 28 - 4.1.1 Bovine Viral Diarrhoea ......................................................................................................... - 29 - 4.1.2 Brucellosis ......................................................................................................................... - 31 - 4.1.3 Neosporosis ......................................................................................................................... - 32 - 4.2 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.1 Study area ......................................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.2 Selection of study farms and animals .................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.3 Data and sample collection. ................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.3 Sample handling and laboratory analysis ........................................................................ - 34 - 4.4 Data management and analysis ....................................................................................... - 35 - 4.4.1 Data management .................................................................................................................. - 35 - 4.4.2 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................. - 35 - 4.5 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 35 - 4.5.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 35 - 4.5.1.1 Response rate and number of animals selected into the study............................................ - 35 - 4.5.1.2 Animal variables ................................................................................................................. - 36 - 4.5.1.3 Feeding system ................................................................................................................... - 36 - V 4.5.1.4 Breeding methods ............................................................................................................... - 36 - 4.5.1.5 Vaccination ......................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.1.6 Reproductive history .......................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.1.7 Seroprevalence results ........................................................................................................ - 37 - 4.5.2 Disease variables ................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.2.1 BVDV ......................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.5.2.2 Neospora caninum .............................................................................................................. - 38 - 4.5.2.3 Brucella abortus ................................................................................................................. - 39 - 4.5.2.4 Interrelationship between diseases ..................................................................................... - 41 - 4.5.2.5 Regression analysis of risk factors ..................................................................................... - 41 - 4.6 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 43 - 4.7 Conclusion and recommendations .................................................................................. - 48 - CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................... - 49 - 5 SEROEPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF Neospora caninum AND ITS RISK FACTORS IN FARM DOGS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA ............................... - 49 - 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 49 - 5.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... - 51 - 5.2.1 Study area ......................................................................................................................... - 51 - 5.2.2 Farm and animal selection ..................................................................................................... - 51 - 5.2.3 Sample collection, handling, and laboratory analysis ........................................................... - 51 - 5.3 Data collection, management and analysis ..................................................................... - 52 - 5.3.1 Analytical statistics ................................................................................................................ - 53 - 5.4 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 53 - 5.4.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 53 - 5.4.2 Chi-squared analyses of risk factors ...................................................................................... - 54 - 5.4.3 Regression analysis of risk factors ........................................................................................ - 56 - 5.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 56 - VI CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................... - 60 - 6 THE EFFECT OF BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA VIRUS, Brucella abortus AND Neospora caninum ON THE INCIDENCE OF ABORTION/FOETAL LOSS IN DAIRYCATTLE HERDS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA .................................... - 60 - 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 60 - 6.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... - 64 - 6.2.1 Selection of study farms and animals .................................................................................... - 64 - 6.2.2 Sample handling and laboratory analysis .............................................................................. - 64 - 6.3 Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................... - 65 - 6.3.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 65 - 6.3.2 Analytical statistics ................................................................................................................ - 66 - 6.4 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 67 - 6.4.1.1 Animals selected and monitored in the study ..................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1.2 Animal variables ................................................................................................................. - 67 - 6.4.1.3 Location ......................................................................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1.4 Feeding system ................................................................................................................... - 67 - 6.4.1.5 Breeding methods ............................................................................................................... - 68 - 6.4.1.6 Reproductive history .......................................................................................................... - 68 - 6.4.2 Abortion incidence ................................................................................................................ - 68 - 6.4.2.1 Univariable associations with abortion............................................................................... - 69 - 6.4.2.2 Stage of foetal loss.............................................................................................................. - 72 - 6.4.2.3 Incidence rates of NC, BVD and BA ................................................................................. - 73 - 6.4.2.4 Infections vs foetal loss ...................................................................................................... - 73 - 6.4.3 Regression analysis ............................................................................................................... - 74 - 6.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 75 - CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................................ - 78 - VII 7 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES RELATED TO BOVINE ABORTION AND FOETAL LOSS AMONG ANIMAL HEALTH SERVICE PROVIDERS IN NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA ...................... - 78 - 7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... - 78 - 7.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... - 80 - 7.2.1 Study area and population ..................................................................................................... - 80 - 7.2.2 Data collection ....................................................................................................................... - 80 - 7.2.3 Data management and analysis ............................................................................................. - 81 - 7.2.3.1 Data management ............................................................................................................... - 81 - 7.2.3.2 Descriptive statistics ........................................................................................................... - 81 - 7.2.3.3 Analytical statistics ............................................................................................................. - 81 - 7.3 Results ......................................................................................................................... - 82 - 7.3.1 Descriptive statistics .............................................................................................................. - 82 - 7.3.2 Comparison of the level of training with knowledge and practices on bovine abortion ....... - 83 - 7.3.3 Comparison of the years of experience against perceptions and management of bovine abortion ......................................................................................................................... - 87 - 7.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... - 90 - CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................................... - 95 - 8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... - 95 - REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... - 97 - APPENDICES - 118 - APPENDIX 1 FARMERS’ SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................ - 118 - APPENDIX 2 VETERINARIANS AND PARAVETERINARIANS SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................................................................... - 120 - APPENDIX 3 INDIVIDUAL ANIMAL FOLLOW-UP RECORD ............................................ - 121 - VIII LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics and univariable associations between seropositivity to BVDV, NC and BA their risk factors in among dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya, 2010……………………………………………...………………...- 41 - Table 5.1 Descriptive statistics and univariable association between seropositivity for Neospora caninum and epidemiological data for 84 dogs on 53 dairy farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010 ..................................................................... - 55 - Table 6.1 Distribution of foetal loss (n=31) by parity in dairy cattle farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011 ......................................................................... - 70 - Table 6.2 Stage of gestation of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................... - 72 - Table 6.3 Kaplan-Meier output on stage/time of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle herds in Nakuru District, Kenya ..................................................................... - 72 - Table 6.4 Distribution of infections associated with foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya, 2010-2011 ........................................................... - 74 - Table 6.5 Multivariable regression analysis of risk factors for foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya............................................................ - 74 - Table 5.1 Descriptive statistics and univariable association between seropositivity for Neospora caninum and epidemiological data for 84 dogs on 53 dairy farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010……………………………………………- 56 - IX Table 6.1 Distribution of foetal loss (n=31) by parity in dairy cattle farms in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011…… ................................................................ .- 71 - Table 6.2 Stage of gestation of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya in 2010-2011………………………………………………………- 73 - Table 6.3 Kaplan-Meier output on stage/time of foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle herds in Nakuru District, Kenya…………………………………………- 73 - Table 6.4 Distribution of infections associated with foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya, 2010-2011……………………………..………- 75 - Table 6.5 Multivariable regression analysis of risk factors for foetal loss (n=31) in 260 dairy cattle in Nakuru District, Kenya…………………………………….- 75 - Table 7.1 Distribution of knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine abortion by level of training among animal health service providers in Nakuru District, 2010- 86- Table 7.2 Distribution of knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine abortion by years of practicing experience among animal health service providers in Nakuru District, 2010…………………..…………………………………………..- 89 - X

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Several methods have been developed to detect BVDV infection in cattle (OIE manual, 2008) also provide an estimate of the abortion incidence that is occurring. Each well was then washed with 300 μl of phosphate buffered
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