TITLE PAGE Cover photo (Top) — bat guano component; insect body parts. (Bottom) — bat guano components; insect antenna. (Photos courtesy of Shawn Abbott, Ph.D., Laboratory Director, Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Inc., Daly City, CA.) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hess-Kosa, Kathleen. Indoor air quality : sampling methodologies / Kathleen Hess-Kosa. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-539-8 (alk. paper) 1. Indoor air pollution—Measurement. I. Title. TD890 .H49 2001 628.5′3—dc21 2001029590 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2002 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-539-8 Library of Congress Card Number 2001029590 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper PREFACE This book is intended to provide environmental professionals and industrial hygienists with the latest information available on “indoor air quality sampling.” The focus is to provide a “practical guide” for developing a theory and following it through to the identification of unknown air contaminants. The Background Section shall define, clarify, and provide direction for develop- ing a hypothesis. With a well-defined hypothesis, the investigator must then test the hypothesis by sampling. Direction is provided for determining what, when, where, and how to sample for the various airborne components that may be found in indoor air quality situations. The components are broken into bioaerosols, chemicals, and dust. In each chapter after the background information, occurrence of materials, sampling strategies, and several methodologies have been discussed. The intent of providing a several sampling methods for a given substance is to allow the investi- gator to choose the appropriate approach for different scenarios. The objective is not that of being focused on the single best approach but to choose that which is most appropriate given differing situations. As with a detective, there is no single recipe to fit all cases. Although generally defined as all biological components, bioaerosols are inclusive of microbials only in the Bioaerosols Section of this book. Other biological components are contained with the section on dust. This section contains sampling methodologies for microbial allergens, pathogenic microbes, and toxigenic molds/ bacteria. The Chemical Section contains sampling methodologies for volatile organic compounds, mold volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and product emissions. The mold volatile organic compounds are discussed within this section because some researchers speculate that the mold by- products may contribute to the total volatile organic compound exposures in an en- closed building. Yet, others use some of the techniques provided in order to locate molds in wall spaces. Thus, when performing a mold assessment, the investigator should be aware of other approaches that may aid in diagnosing and identifying a source. The Dust Section contains sampling methodologies for many of the allergenic bioaerosols as well as methods for identifying components of dust. Dust components can reveal not only allergenic materials, but chemicals adsorbed onto the surfaces of dust or settled droplets, toxic metals, and different types of fibers (e.g., fiberglass). ©2002 CRC Press LLC Overlooking the need to assess the dust component be overlooking very important information. It is not how much dust is indoor air but what is in it. As a passion for detective work is one of the great motivators for one the focus on indoor air quality problems, the person performing an assessment is herein referred to as the “investigator.” The investigators greatest asset is his/her ability to weave through a convoluted web of complex problems. This book provides a few strategic approaches and “tools.” Kathleen Hess-Kosa ©2002 CRC Press LLC ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to dedicate this book to those who have sacrificed time, technical expertise, and patience. Of particular note is David Fetveit who consistently bombarded me with the latest and greatest each time I thought the book was coming to a close. I would also like to thank David Gallup for providing me with the extensive information regarding last minute details. Shawn Abbot, Ph.D. responded to my never-ending questions and provided a wonderful set of micrographs of molds. Brian Sheldon, Ph.D. also assisted me in details that are difficult at best to obtain. Each of these individuals contributed toward the ever-changing, ever-challenging topic of bioaerosols. Last, but certainly not least, Mike Kosa has given me support and suffered the loss of my presence during the final months of frantic deadlines and glaring retorts. He has been my rock of sanity. ©2002 CRC Press LLC ABOUT THE AUTHOR Kathleen Hess-Kosa is president/owner of Omega Southwest Environmental Consulting. In 1972, she received her bachelor of science degree in microbiology with a minor in chemistry from Oklahoma State University. After serving as an officer in the Air Force for three years, she returned to school and earned a master of science degree (1979) in industrial hygiene from the College of Engineering at Texas A&M University. Her research involved an animal toxicological study and was conducted at the College of Veterinary Sciences. Ms. Hess-Kosa worked as a consultant for Firemen’s Fund Insurance Companies until 1984. This was shortly after she passed the certification exam conducted by the American Board of Industrial Hygiene. During these five years, Ms. Hess-Kosa had the opportunity to become involved in a variety of unique industrial hygiene and environmental concerns, including indoor air quality concerns in an 800-occupant office building and information gathering for performing environmental site assessments and assessing waste. All this and much more carried over to her private consulting business. Ms. Hess-Kosa has since conducted numerous Phase I environmental site assessments and published a book concerning the topic. She has actively pursued obscure sources of information and training to better address the complex nature of environmental issues, indoor air quality, and multiple chemical sensitivity. She has successfully identified sources of indoor air quality problems in over 90 percent of the numerous investigations performed, and she has been instrumental in rectifying 100 percent of the scenarios. It took some time to get to this point, but some of the information which was collected and has been used by Ms. Hess-Kosa is presented within this book. ©2002 CRC Press LLC Table of Contents SECTION I: BACKGROUND Chapter 1: Historic Overview Litigation Differences in Health Effects A Misguided Premise Regulatory Limits and Guidelines U.S. Government Directives EPA Ambient Air Quality Standards OSHA Workplace Standards ACGIH Workplace Guidelines ASHRAE Criteria for Public Buildings ACGIH Guidelines Revisited EPA and State Environmental Standards Revisited Other Contributors ASHRAE Criteria for Residences Summary References Chapter 2: Preliminary Investigation Documents Review Building Walk-through Occupied Areas Air Handling System Bathroom Air Exhaust Occupant Activities Interviews with Facilities Personnel Maintenance Staff Custodial Staff Observations of Surrounding Areas Assessing Occupant Complaints Questionnaires Types of Questionnaires ©2002 CRC Press LLC Questionnaire Response Rate Informational Data Interviews Summary References Chapter 3: The Hypothesis Information Review Building Assessment Complaint Occupant Hypothesis Development The Proactive Approach Beyond the Scope Medical Physicians Industrial Hygienists and Toxicologists Psychiatrists Summary References SECTION II: BIOAEROSOLS Chapter 4: Pollen and Spore Allergens Occurrence of Pollen and Spore Allergens General Information Spore-Producing Fungi and Bacteria Fungi Molds Mushrooms Rusts and Smuts Slime Molds Bacteria Indoor Source Information Sampling Strategy Sampling and Analytical Methodologies Slit-to-Cover Slip Sample Cassettes Slit-to-Slide Samplers Analytical Methods Commercial Laboratories Helpful Hints Interpretation of Results Summary References ©2002 CRC Press LLC Chapter 5: Viable Microbial Allergens Occurrence of Allergenic Microbes Fungi Molds Yeasts Bacteria Bacillus Thermophilic Actinomycetes Air Sampling Methodologies Sampling Strategy When and Where to Sample Equipment Slit-to-Agar Impactor Multiple Hole Impactor Liquid Impingers Filtration Centrifugal Agar Samplers Sample Duration Sample Numbers Culture Media General Information Special Comments Procedural Summary Diagnostic Sampling Methodologies Sampling Strategy Where to Sample What to Sample Sampling Supplies Procedural Summary Interpretation of Results Genus Variability Airborne Exposure Levels Bulk and Surface Sample Results Helpful Hints Summary References Chapter 6: Pathogenic Microbes Airborne Pathogenic Fungi ©2002 CRC Press LLC Disease and Occurrence Aspergillus Histoplasma capsulatum Coccidioides immitis Cryptococcus neoformans Other Pathogenic Fungi Sampling and Analytical Methodologies Interpretation of Results Airborne Pathogenic Bacteria Pathogenic Legionella Sampling and Analytical Methodologies Interpretation of Results Helpful Hints Other Pathogenic Bacteria Disease and Occurrence of Prominent Airborne Pathogenic Bacteria Bacillus anthracis Corynebacterium diphtheriae Mycobacterium tuberculosis Various Genera of Pseudomonas Sampling and Analytical Methodologies Interpretation of Results Pathogenic Protozoa Sampling and Analytical Methodology Interpretation of Results Viruses Summary References Chapter 7: Toxigenic Microbes Mycotoxins Disease and Occurrence Sampling and Analytical Methodologies Fungi Identification Toxin Identification Interpretation of Results Bacterial Endotoxins Sampling and Analytical Methodologies Interpretation of Results Summary References ©2002 CRC Press LLC