INDOOR AIR QUALITY ENGINEERING Yuanhui Zhang CRC PR ESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2004 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20131028 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-203-48855-3 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com L1674_C00.fm Page 3 Saturday, July 24, 2004 12:21 PM Preface Airborne pollutants are present all the time and everywhere in the form of gases, odors, and particulate matter. These pollutants have an increasing influence on our daily life. In developed countries, an average working person spends over 90% of his or her lifetime indoors. Growing concerns about indoor air quality (IAQ) and appar- ently increasing incidences of IAQ-related illness in people has inspired many efforts in this area from industry, academia, the general public, and government agencies. During my 10 years of teaching about indoor air pollutant measurement and control for a senior and graduate-level engineering class, one of the difficulties that I encountered was finding a suitable textbook. Although there is a considerable amount of literature on the topic and several books cover related topics (such as aerosol science and technology, industrial ventilation, and pollutant measurement instrumentation), there has been a need for a comprehensive textbook to cover the principles and applications of indoor air quality engineering. This book is intended to fill that need. Although this book is primarily written for engineering students and professionals, its principles and approach can be useful to individuals in indus- trial hygiene, environmental sciences, and public health who are engaged in the measurement and abatement of indoor air quality problems. This book is an accumulation of my lecture notes. Its aim is to explain the principles in a direct way so that a reader can study them independently. An instructor using this book as a textbook may tailor the contents according to the designated credit hours. The 15 chapters can be divided into three modules: • Airborne pollutant properties and behavior • Measurement and sampling efficiency • Air-cleaning engineering The first module includes Chapter 1 through Chapter 6 and discusses the prop- erties and mechanics of airborne pollutants, including gases and particulate matter. Properties include physical, chemical, and biological aspects of particulate and gaseous pollutants. Behavior includes particle mechanics, gas kinetics, diffusion, and transportation of pollutants. This module provides the science and is fundamental to identifying and analyzing problems of indoor air quality. The second module, on measurement and sampling efficiency, includes Chapter 7 through Chapter 9. This module discusses airborne pollutant measurements, includ- ing particle impaction, gravitational settling, collection of pollutants by means of diffusion, particle sampling efficiency, and particle production rate in a ventilated airspace. It provides the tools for readers to collect air quality data, analyze a problem, and get ready for engineering solutions. The third module consists of Chapter 10 through Chapter 15, which discuss IAQ control technologies. Air-cleaning technologies covered in this module include fil- tration, aerodynamic air cleaning, electrostatic precipitation, wet scrubbing, adsorp- tion, and ventilation effectiveness. This module provides typical methods and tech- nologies to solve IAQ problems. L1674_C00.fm Page 4 Saturday, July 24, 2004 12:21 PM For those who may choose this book as a textbook, I would like to share my own experience in using this material in my class. On average, one week’s course load (typically 3 lecture hours and a 1- to 2-hour laboratory exercise) corresponds to one chapter. Homework is given on a weekly basis. Depending on the availability of equipment, laboratory exercises can be based on chapters or can be arranged according to modules. Four laboratory topics and reports are required in my class: • Airborne pollutant size distribution and particle statistics • Concentration measurement and particle mechanics • Sampling efficiency • Air-cleaning technologies In addition, the class is divided into several teams to work on different class projects. Many students have brought their own real-world projects into the class. For exam- ple, one team evaluated several types of commercial air cleaners from superstores and made suggestions for improvement. Although many people have contributed to this book, I am particularly eager to acknowledge the following individuals. Professor Ernest M. Barber, my mentor and friend, inspired me to get into air-quality research and encouraged me to continue. I am especially thankful to Dr. Zhongchao Tan for his tireless efforts on the solutions for this book. He solved and edited all working problems while he was a graduate teaching assistant for this class at the University of Illinois. Dr. Yigang Sun contrib- uted two sections and provided invaluable comments. I am grateful to my former graduate TAs (now professors) Xinlei Wang, Brian He, and Joshua W. McClure, and to the students in my classes over the years, for their comments, critiques, and editorials on the manuscript. There are still inevitable errors, and I am sure that this debugging process will continue after publication. I thank Megan Teague, Malia Appleford and Simon Appleford for their comments and editorial assistance. Finally, I completed this book without spending a sabbatical leave, but the writing occupied many family hours. Thus, I am indebted to my wife, Yanhui Mao, who is a mechan- ical engineer — enjoying her own work and understanding mine — and to our four- year old son, Matthew, who visited my office so often that he eventually referred to my office as his office and to my office building as “the coolest building in the world.” It was nice that I did not really consider this project as work, because I enjoyed it so much. It was a wonderful learning experience. And I hope that you will enjoy reading it. Yuanhui Zhang L1674_C00.fm Page 5 Saturday, July 24, 2004 12:21 PM The Author Dr. Yuanhui Zhang is a professor of bioenvironmental engineering in the Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, and a professor of bioengi- neering in the Department of Bioengineering, at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. He is a registered professional engineer. His teaching includes both undergraduate- and graduate-level courses in biosystems engineering, indoor air quality, and waste treatment technologies. His research interests include measure- ment, modeling, and control of airborne pollutants in indoor environments; charac- terization of room airflows; effects of indoor air quality on the health and well- being of occupants; bioenergy and biofuel conversion from organic waste; and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning for biological housing systems and envi- ronment control strategies. TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk L1674_C00.fm Page 7 Saturday, July 24, 2004 12:21 PM Nomenclature Symbol Description Dimension A Area m2 A Collision area of particles m2 c A Wetted area m2 w B Mechanical mobility m◊N-1s-1 BE Electrical mobility m2◊V-1s-1 BEi Electrical mobility of ions; for air ions, BEi = 1.5 ¥ 10-4 m2/V◊s m2◊V-1s-1 B Solidity factor f B Hydrodynamic factor for particle diffusion h B Particle interception factor i C Concentration C Slip correction factor for particles c C Slip correction factor for aerodynamic diameter ca C Slip correction factor for equivalent volume diameter ce C Drag coefficient D Ce Equilibrium concentration on the surface of the solid phase mg◊m-3 Cgm Concentration of gas in mass ppmm, mg◊kg-1 Cgn Concentration of gas in molecules per unit volume molecule◊m-3 Cgn0 Initial concentration of gas at the diffusion interface molecule◊m-3 Cgv Concentration of gas in volume ppmv, ml◊m-3 Ci Concentration of ions ion◊m-3 Ci0 Undisturbed ion concentration ion◊m-3 C Normalized air contaminant concentration NC C Concentration of particles p Cpm Concentration of particles in mass mg◊m-3 Cpn Concentration of particles in number particles◊m-3 Cpn0 Initial concentration of particles in number particles◊m-3 C Pollutant concentration at the exit of a regeneration bed r Ct Total concentration of particles and droplets particles◊m-3 Cx Solid-phase pollutant concentration g◊g-1 Cxs Saturated solid-phase pollutant concentration, adsorption g◊g-1 capacity CMD Count median diameter m c Specific heat kJ◊kg-1◊K-1 c Discharge coefficient a D Diffusion coefficient; diameter m2◊s-1; m D Equivalent diameter m e D Hydraulic diameter m h Dp Diffusion coefficient of particles m2◊s-1 D ith sampling point on a duct diameter in duct sampling m si D Diameter of sampling head m s D Maximum diameter of sampling head m smax D Minimum diameter of sampling head m smin D Diameter of tube m t D Diameter of wire m w d Diameter of particles m d Diameter at which impaction/collection efficiency is 100% m 100 d Cutsize, diameter at which collection efficiency is 50% m 50 L1674_C00.fm Page 8 Saturday, July 24, 2004 12:21 PM Symbol Description Dimension d Colliding diameter m c d Count mean diameter m cm d Diameter of droplet (solid or liquid) m d d Equivalent volume diameter in cm m e d Diameter of a filter fiber m f d Geometric mean diameter, count median diameter m g d Midpoint diameter of ith group m i d Diameter of average mass m m d Mass mean diameter m mm d Diameter of particles m p d Critical particle diameter that can be deposited on a ceiling m pc surface d Diameter of tubing m t d Diameter of average surface m s d Surface mean diameter m sm d A type of average diameter of particles m x E Energy J Electrostatic field intensity, activation energy N◊C-1(V◊m-1) Eg Kinetic energy of gases N◊m, kg◊m2◊s-2 Ep Kinetic energy of airborne particles N◊m, kg◊m2◊s-2 E Effectiveness coefficient of mixing v e Charge of an electron C F Force N F Adhesion force of particles N ah F Drag force N D F Force attributed to inertia N I F Frequency of particles falling in ith size group N i F Force attributed to shear or friction N t F Electrostatic force N E F External force N e F Centrifugal force N c F Force caused by osmotic pressure N om F Force caused by osmotic pressure on one (or ith) particle N omi f Fractional function f Fraction of concentration for ith size group i f Mass fraction of ith size group im f Fraction of concentration for jth size group j G Gravitational constant Gas flow rate m3◊s◊kg; kg◊s-1, mol◊s-1 G’ Flow rate of stagnant carrying gas kg◊s-1, mol◊s-1 G Factor of filtration efficiency due to gravitational settling f g Gravitational acceleration m◊s-2 H Height m Henry’s law constant H Annular gap of cyclones m a H Distance of exhaust air outlet (center line) to floor m e H Thickness of a filter m f H Distance of supply air inlet (center line) to floor m s H Number of velocity heads v h Enthalpy kJ◊kg-1 Convective heat transfer coefficient kJ◊m-2◊C◊s-1 hs Enthalpy of supply air kJ◊kg-1 he Enthalpy of exhaust air kJ◊kg-1 L1674_C00.fm Page 9 Saturday, July 24, 2004 12:21 PM Symbol Description Dimension I Current A Current of ion toward a particle ion◊s-1 i ith group of particles, or ith in a group of n variables J Diffusion flux of gases molecules◊m-2◊s-1 JE Ion flux ions◊m-2◊s-1 Jp Diffusion flux of particles particles◊m-2◊s-1 j jth group of particles K Corrected coagulation coefficient for all particle sizes K0 Coagulation coefficient for dp > 0.4 mm K Coagulation coefficient for two particle sizes 1-2 K Particle capture efficiency of droplet in kinematic coagulation c K Average coagulation coefficient for particles with n sizes n Ku Kuwabara hydrodynamic factor K Mass transfer coefficient between gaseous and solid states s-1 x k Boltzmann’s constant, R/Na = 1.38 ¥ 10-23 (N◊m◊K-1) N◊m◊K-1 Reaction rate constant s-1 Turbulence kinetic energy J k Particle reentrainment factor at collecting surface rp L Length, characteristic length m Liquid flow rate kg◊s-1, mol◊s-1 L' Flow rate of stagnant absorbing fluid kg◊s-1, mol◊s-1 L Length of flow trajectory m f LMD Length median diameter m L Length of wetted perimeter m w l Liter 10-3 m3 M Mass per mole of gases kg.mol-1 Molar weight g MMD Mass median diameter m M Mass of gases kg g M Deposited mass for ith particle size range kg di M˙ Mass deposition rate for ith particle size range kg.s-1 di M Total mass of particles kg p M˙ Mass production rate of particles kg.s-1 M˙p Net mass production rate of particles kg.s-1 pn M Mass of contaminants kg c M Adsorption capacity, in g of adsorbate per 100 g of adsorbent xs m˙c Mass production rate of contaminant kg◊s-1 m˙ Mass flow rate kg◊s-1 m˙p Mass production rate of particle mass kg◊s-1 m˙d Mass deposition rate of particle mass kg◊s-1 m Mass of a particle or a molecule kg m Average mass of a particle population kg◊m-3 m Mass of a gas molecule kg g m Midsize mass of ith group particles kg i m Mass of a particle kg p N Total number of particles or molecules, or ions N Avogadro’s number, number of molecules per mole a N Number of complete turns in a cyclone e N Total number of particles p N Total number of particles in ith size range pi Npd Particle number deposited on unit surface area particles◊m2 n Number of particle size groups, number of moles, number of ions n Average number of particle charges ion◊particle-1