Asia-Pacific Relations Indonesia: The story of the nation … and its relationship with Australia by Adrian Osterley ISBN 978 086427 293 5 Published in electronic format by Trocadero Publishing GPO Box 1546 Sydney NSW 2001 Australia ABN 28003214748 [email protected] www.trocadero.com.au Created and produced in Australia Copyright © 2013 S and L Brodie The information in this eBook was current at the time of writing IMPORTANT NOTICE This work is protected under Australian and international copyright laws and conventions. No part of this work may be copied, duplicated, saved to another system, stored in any electronic or other system, or reproduced in any shape or form without the written permission of the copyright owners and the publisher. This copy is licensed only to the purchaser and may not be passed on to any other person or organisation in electronic, printed, or any other form. By accessing this eBook you are bound by international copyright laws. 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ASIA-PACIFIC RELATIONS Other books in this series Australia’s Asian Neighbours Australia’s Pacific Neighbours China: The Story of the Nation Japan: The Story of the Nation India: The Story of the Nation Other Trocadero series AUSTRALIAN TIMELINES THE NATIONAL IDENTITY The Governors 1788–1850 Faiths, Religions, Beliefs in Modern Australia Immigration Since 1788 Australian Origins Prime Ministers and Their Governments Volume 1: Afghanistan to Italy Volume 2: Japan to Zimbabwe The Constitution: The Document that Created the Nation Immigrants Who Changed Australia Exploration and Settlement in Colonial Australia GLOBAL INFLUENCES The Commonwealth of Australia: The Industrial Revolution and Evolving into a Nation its Impact on Australia Convicts: AUSTRALIAN INFRASTRUCTURE The Penal Settlements that Created Australia How Communications United Australia Gold: Instant Wealth and Long-term Prosperity LINKING THE NATION The States: Their Place in Federal Australia Australia’s Airlines: About the Money: Australia’s Economic History How the Skies Were Conquered Australia at the Time of Federation Australia’s Railways: Bushrangers: Australia’s Wild Colonial Boys How the Land Was Conquered AUSTRALIA YEAR BY YEAR DEFENDING AUSTRALIA 1788 to 1809: From First Fleet to Rum Rebellion World War I: The Australian Experience 1810 to 1845: From the Macquarie Era World War II: The Australian Experience to Ending Transportation The Cold War: Australia in Korea, Malaya, Vietnam AUSTRALIAN DECADES The Anzac Spirit: Australia’s Military Legend The 1950s: Building a New Australia ASIA-PACIFIC TIMELINES The 1960s: Reshaping Australian Society European Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific The 1970s: It’s Time for Change Shogunate Japan: 800 Years of Military Control THEY MADE AUSTRALIA Imperial China * Inventions and Innovations Women Who Made Australian History * AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY Influencing Australia * Please check www.trocadero.com.au for publication date Over many millennia Indonesia has evolved from a large connected land mass into a vast archipelago. At least 3000 years ago the oceans receded and the islands we know today took shape. The peoples of the region developed maritime skills that took them from island to island and much further afield across the Indian Ocean. Before long these peoples had become significant traders. Traders from India brought Hinduism and Buddhism to Java and Sumatra. A number of significant Hindu empires flourished until the 15th century. After this new arrivals brought Islam, which found a ready acceptance among the people of the Indonesia: The story archipelago. Indonesia today has the world’s largest single from ancient times to today 2–32 Islamic population. Portuguese, Dutch and English traders began arriving in the 15th century, seeking the spices that grew in abundance. Government 4 Eventually the Netherlands secured colonial control of what Economy 8 they called the East Indies. Geography, climate, After World WarII nationalists campaigned to eject the environment 10 Dutch from their land. At the end of 1949 total independence Transport 14 was achieved. There followed 15 years of turmoil under the leadership of the charismatic Sukarno. Communications 18 Following his removal in 1965 there was stability and economic People 20 growth. There was also widespread corruption, especially within Faiths, beliefs 24 the military. The boom years ended in economic collapse in 1997. Statistics 32 Since then Indonesia has experienced renewed growth despite natural disasters and outbreaks of terrorism in the early 21st Index 33 century. Under President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, the republic has found renewed stability. BC = BCE AD = CE In this book we have used BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era). BCE is used for dates before the year 1; CE for dates from the year 1. BCE is the equivalent of BC (Before Christ); CE is the Edited by Lynn Brodie equivalent of AD (Anno Domini, or After the Birth of Christ or, literally, ‘In the Year of Our Lord’). ISBN 978 086427 293 5 Copyright © 2013 S and L Brodie All rights reserved Published by Trocadero Publishing GPO Box 1546 Sydney NSW 2001 Australia For links to websites of interest, please go to www.trocadero.com.au www.trocadero.com.au/indonesia 2 g{x fàÉÜç The Indonesian archipelago is a collection of their way to the east coast of Africa. It is possible they ancient lands. Ancestors of today’s humans, settled on Madagascar, where many typically Indonesian known as Homo erectus, lived on what is now the island of cultural traits can be found today. Java up to 1.7million years ago. Trading expanded dramatically in the 5thcentury CE At the time the region was one land mass stretching when contact was made with China. Sumatran traders from the Malay peninsula across Sumatra, Java and the began exporting produce harvested from the trees on the many islands as far as Timor. This was the path used by island. Most important of these was camphor resin. the indigenous peoples of Australia and Papua New Within 200 years Palembang had become the centre of Guinea when they migrated at least 50000 years ago. trade with the Chinese. Around 4000BCE, with the melting of glaciers, the There were a number of smaller trading centres along lower lying areas were flooded, creating the distinct the coastlines of Java, Sumatra and Borneo. They formed islands we know today. the basis of minor kingdoms each determined to protect their domain and way of life. Most territories were based Traders around rivers, stretching inland along river valleys. Rather than interact with their neighbours, most kingdoms Although there are no records before looked offshore to trading destinations in China and India. the 1stcentury CE, it is widely believed that the peoples of what is now Indonesia Peoples and languages were actively engaged in trade throughout the region earlier than this. The islands of Sumatra, Java and Borneo These small population centres, isolated from were rich sources of timber, resin and spices. The many one another, developed a wide range of navigable rivers enabled produce to be easily carried to languages. Up to 10000years ago speakers of a variety of markets on the coast. Austronesian languages Small Indonesian sailing began arriving in the craft were carrying produce archipelago from Asia or to various ports on the the Pacific islands. Indian subcontinent before Gradually these the 1stcentury CE. It is languages were adopted and also believed these modified to suit a region’s adventurous traders found needs. This is the source of the wide variety of languages and dialects that exist in Indonesia today. A wall sculpture in Merdeka Square, It is generally believed Jakarta, depicts the that around 2000BCE history of Indonesia Austronesian people began 3 4 arriving in the archipelago from Taiwan. They brought ZÉäxÜÇÅxÇà techniques of wet-field rice growing as well as skills in bronze casting and weaving. The cultivation of rice found an ideal home in the archipelago, with its abundant rain and fertile soils. Growth of the kingdoms Country name Republic of Indonesia Capital Jakarta Trading links with the Indian subcontinent Independence 17 August 1945 led to the establishment of the Government type Republic Hindu religion on the islands. It is not known exactly Constitution August 1949; 1949/50, how this occurred; however, it was most likely a 1959, various combination of factors. Indian traders often settled in amendments to 2002 the archipelago and married into local tribal groups. It is Executive also possible that Hindu missionaries set out to spread Head of state and government President Cabinet Appointed by President their faith about the 1stcentury CE. Buddhism was also Legislature introduced by much the same methods. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat – MPR With the growth of sophisticated societies, the small (People’s Consultative Assembly) Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat – DPR and once isolated kingdoms began to grow. Although (House of Representatives) autonomous, they were linked by religion and by trading Judiciary ventures throughout southern Asia. Supreme Court One of the earlier records is of the Kingdom of Medang. Justices appointed by the President It was located in western Java near where Jakarta is today. Legal system Based on Roman-Dutch civil law and In the 8thcentury CE it was ruled over by King Sanna. customary law Voting Srivijaya 17 years, universal National day The Srivijaya Kingdom began to emerge after Independence Day 17 August 500CE. Based at Palembang in Sumatra, it Diplomatic representation in Australia Ambassador, Canberra developed into a major power because of its trading Australian representation in Indonesia relations with China. Ambassador, Jakarta The coastal region where the Musi River enters the Member of sea was controlled by the Srivijaya King. The inland United Nations, ASEAN, APEC, Group of 20 Nations Sumatran warriors Indonesia’s flag is called Sang Saka Merah-Putih (Sacred Red-and-White) or Bendera Merah-Putih (Red-and-White Flag). The colours are derived from those of the Majapahit Kingdom. The red is symbolic of courage, the white of purity. They can also be traced back to the Austronesian mythology of mother earth (red) and father sky (white). It was first flown officially when independence was declared in 1945. 5 forces invaded Srivijaya’s territory. They seized the capital of Palembang and captured the King. Chola’s intervention was ultimately unsuccessful. It did, however, begin Srivijaya’s break-up into a series of smaller kingdoms on Sumatra. Srivijaya’s power in the region was taken over by the expanding Javanese kingdoms of Singhasari and Majapahit. At the same time, Buddhism was steadily being displaced by Islam as the dominant religion. Singhasari Singhasari was founded by a former servant, Ken Arok, in 1222 on the island of Java. It replaced the Kedari kingdom. Ken Arok is considered to be the founder of the Rajasa dynasty. Rajasa monarchs went on to create the later and much larger Majapahit dynasty. After 1268 Raja Kertanagara succeeded in uniting the various kingdoms of Java for a short time. By the late 13thcentury Singhasari was under siege from Ceylonese pirates and the Chola Empire of India. At the same time Emperor Kublai Khan of China demanded Singhasari accept his domination. Raja Kertanagara refused and insulted Khan’s officials. regions which provided materials for the kingdom’s trade One of his rivals, Jayakatwang of Kedari, rebelled against remained under the control of local chiefs. the Raja. When Kertanagara was killed the kingdom was Around 684CE King Jayanasa embarked on a in turmoil. program of aggressive expansion in the region. With an army numbering 2000, he conquered the neighbouring Majapahit Malayu Kingdom. Jayanasa’s successors pushed the boundaries of Srivijaya When Kublai Khan’s envoys reported Raja across most of Sumatra and into parts of Java. It eventually Kertanagara’s insults, the Chinese controlled trade in the Malacca and Sunda straits, the Emperor ordered massive retaliation. A fleet of more than South China Sea and Java Sea. In the 7thcentury CE, 1000 ships was dispatched to teach the Javanese a lesson. trade expanded to include ports in Indo-China. Before they could arrive, Adipati Jayakatwang had Along with commercial activities, Srivijaya became a deposed and killed Kertanagara. The new Raja gave key centre for the Mahayana strain of Buddhism. It Kertanagara’s son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, the region became an important stop for pilgrims on their way known as Tarik. On this site Wijaya created a from China to India. village he called Majapahit. By the beginning of the 11thcentury, Srivijaya’s When Kublai Khan’s invasion fleet arrived expanding power had become a concern for the in 1292, Wijaya allied himself with the Chinese Chola kingdom in southern India. Chola was not until they had defeated Jayakatawang. Wijaya happy with Srivijaya’s dominance of the Sunda then took the Chinese by surprise, launching an and Malacca straits, which were key trade routes attack that saw Khan’s forces withdraw in disarray. between western and eastern Asia. In 1025 Chola The Chinese opted to withdraw completely rather than face a long and uncertain campaign in unknown territory. In November 1293 Wijaya was crowned Sculpture from the Singhasari Kingdom King of Majapahit, using the formal name 6 Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. When he launched the southern Philippines and New Guinea a campaign to secure control of most of Java, also fell under Majapahit control. All this several of Wijaya’s supporters turned against was accomplished through a mixture of him. All were defeated by the time of his military force and diplomacy. The primary death in 1309. aim was to maximise control over the region’s lucrative trade. Expanding Majapahit In the early years of the 15th century Muslim traders from western Asia became Wijaya was succeeded by his established along the northern Java coast. son Jayanegara, who The island was also visited several times by was notorious for his immoral behaviour. Chinese Admiral Zheng He on his many When he was murdered by his doctor in 1328 voyages of exploration. it was intended that his stepmother, Gayatri Rajapatni, would replace him. Instead she Majapahit in decline appointed her daughter, Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, as Queen of Majapahit. When Hayam Wuruk died in Tribhuwana appointed the accomplished 1389 the kingdom went military strategist, Gajah Mada, as her Prime into steady decline. He was succeeded by Minister in 1336. Together they oversaw the Crown Princess Kusumawardhani; however, rapid expansion of Majapahit until 1350, a son from Hayam’s previous marriage when Tribhuwana abdicated the throne in challenged her right to the throne. The ensuing favour of her son, Hayan Wuruk. Under the conflict weakened Majapahit’s control of name Rajasanagara he began a program of some parts of the empire. A statue of the integrating the other kingdoms of Java into By the middle of the 15th century the empire revered military his royal court. leader Gajah Mada was facing a major threat from the Sultanate With Gajah Mada as his loyal ally, he of Malacca, which was based on the Malay expanded the kingdom even further. Majapahit peninsula. Gradually the Sultanate secured developed into the dominant power in parts of Sumatra control of the strategically important Malacca Strait and the Malay peninsula. Regions of Borneo, Sulawesi, between Malaya and Sumatra. 7 The rise of Islam Islam was brought to what is now Indonesia by traders, mainly from western Asia. They began arriving in small numbers in the eleventh century. The first distinctly Muslim settlements had been established in northern Sumatra by the 13th century. Samudra-Pasai became the main centre for the trade between Sumatra, Java and India. The typical kampong (village) that could be found in Indonesia for centuries By the 15th century Samudra-Pasai was a wealthy trading centre for gold, timber and spices. It was, however, As the Sultanate grew in power, many of the regions under gradually overtaken by the Sultanate of Majapahit control took the opportunity to break away from the Malacca on the Malay peninsula. kingdom. Majapahit went into terminal decline between 1478 A number of small Islamic kingdoms and 1527. developed along the northern coast of As disputes over the leadership raged, the capital was moved Java. These ports existed mainly to service the lucrative trade with other inland to Daha. Hindu Majapahit was finally destroyed in 1527 parts of the Muslim world. It was this, by the Islamic Sultanate of Demak. Many court officials and combined with Islam’s policy of equality artisans fled to Bali, establishing a society that remains for all believers, that fuelled expansion predominantly Hindu today. of the faith. Samudra-Pasai’s position as the dominant Mataram Islamic centre in Sumatra was displaced by Aceh in the 16th century. In Java the Sultanate of Mataram rose to prominence in the On Java, as the Hindu-based Majapahit 1570s. Gedhe Pamanahan was installed as ruler with the Empire declined it was replaced largely by Islamic settlements. There was little assistance of the neighbouring Sultanate of Pajang. Things were coordination between these communities, relatively peaceful until Pamanahan’s son, Senapati Ingalaga, which resulted in periods of instability. ascended the throne in 1584. He began a campaign of conquest From this emerged the Sultanate of that included former ally Pajang. Demak, which was determined to When Sedaing Krapyak became leader in 1601, the conflict establish a Javanese kingdom. Demak escalated. Mataram was in a state of almost continuous warfare was responsible for destroying the last vestiges of Majapahit in the region. A traditional house in western Sumatra Although Islam became well established along the coast, it struggled to gain a foothold in inland regions where Shaivite- Mahayana principles prevailed. The switch to Islam was not a revolutionary takeover, but a steady evolutionary change. It intermingled with many aspects of society to create what would become the Indonesian version of Islam. Bali remained a Hindu stronghold, and Christian missionaries were active during the colonial era.