ADVANCES IN TOURISM RESEARCH Series Editor: Professor Stephen J. Page University of Stirling, U.K. [email protected] Advances in Tourism Research series publishes monographs and edited volumes that comprise state-of-the-art research findings, written and edited by leading researchers working in the wider field of tourism studies. The series has been designed to provide a cutting edge focus for researchers interested in tourism, particularly the management issues now facing decision-makers, policy analysts and the public sector. The audience is much wider than just academics and each book seeks to make a significant contribution to the literature in the field of study by not only reviewing the state of knowledge relating to each topic but also questioning some of the prevailing assumptions and research paradigms which currently exist in tourism research. The series also aims to provide a platform for further studies in each area by highlighting key research agendas which will stimulate further debate and interest in the expanding area of tourism research. The series is always willing to consider new ideas for innovative and scholarly books, inquiries should be made directly to the Series Editor. Published: PIKE Bridging Theory and Practice THOMAS Small Firms in Tourism: International Perspectives LUMSDON & PAGE Tourism and Transport ERR Tourism Public Policy and the Strategic Management of Failure WILKS & PAGE Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium BAUM & LUNDTORP Seasonality in Tourism TEO, CHANG & HO Interconnected Worlds: Tourism in Southeast Asia ASHWORTH & TUNBRIDGE The Tourist-Historic City: Retrospect and Prospect of Managing the Heritage City SONG & wI?T Tourism Demand Modelling and Forecasting: Modem Econometric Approaches RYAN & PAGE Tourism Management: Towards the New Millennium Forthcoming titles include: SIMPSON Back to the Future: In Search of an Effective Tourism Planning Model Related Elsevier Journals - sample copies available on request Air(1ine) Transport journal Annals of Tourism Research International Journal of Hospitality Management International Journal of Intercultural Relations Tourism Management World Development Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 lGB, UK Radameg 29, PO Box 2 1 1, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2005 Reprinted 2006 Copyright 02 005, Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: [email protected]. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissionsa, nd selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury andor damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationD ata A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN-13: 978-0-08-044620-2 ISBN-10: 0-08-044620-5 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Transferred to digital print 2007 Printed and bound by CPI Antony Rone. Eastbourne Working together to grow libraries in developing countries I I www.ekevier.com I www.bookaid.org I www.sabre.org With thanks to Alison, Anne, Asad, Charlie, Jenny and Tim. Your help by taking on other tasks helped to make this book possible. Contributors Michelle Aicken graduated from the University of Otago and subsequently worked in Japan and the United Kingdom in a variety of posts. Currently she is completing her doctoral studies at the University of Waikato, New Zealand. She was a co-organiser of the conference, Taking Tourism to the Limits hosted by the Department of Tourism Management. Michelle is able to claim affiliation with Ngai Tahu of the South Island of New Zealand. Jeremy Buultjens lectures at Southern Cross University and is the course administrator of the Degree of Bachelor in Indigenous Tourism Management offered by the University in conjunction with the College of Australian Indigenous Peoples. He holds a doctorate from Griffith University. His research interests include indigenous tourism, tourism in protected areas and regional tourism. Dean Carson is the Head of the Centre for Regional Tourism Research, Southern Cross University. His research interests include managing regional tourism for economic and social gains and the use of information and communications technology in tourism product distribution. Dean has degrees in history, communications, tourism and science. He has worked in rural and regional Australia researching topics as varied as: infrastructure and housing needs in remote Indigenous communities; health workforce retention in rural areas; and the role of Local Government in tourism management. Jenny Cave lectures in special interest and cultural tourism at the University of Waikato. She had a distinguished career in Museums, having served for many years with the Canadian Museum services before being “head-hunted’ back to the land of her birth, New Zealand, to establish Capital Discovery Place, Wellington. She was then subsequently Director of Library and Museum Services for the City of Hamilton. Having a Master’s degree from the University of Ottawa, she is currently completing her doctorate at the University of Waikato. Johan R. Edelheim lectures at the International College of Tourism and Hospitality, Manly, Australia, and is completing his doctorate at Macquarie University, Australia. Johan is a member of the Cultural Studies Association of Australasia and his research interests relate to imagery, identity and culture. His Ph.D. is entitled “Special Interest Tourism as a Contributor to Cultural Identity Formation” and the methodology he is using is a triangulation of Narrative analysis, Sociological deconstruction and Hermeneutic Phenomenology. xviii Contributors Maribeth Erb is Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology of the University of Singapore. She obtained doctorate from the State University of New York. Her research interests lie in anthropology, kinship relationships and social anthropology, and urban anthropology. She has published research relating to tourism and Indonesia including work published in the Annals of Tourism Research. Vicky Gerbich grew up in Western Springs, Illinois, a suburb outside of Chicago and obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in Geography from the University of Illinois and a M.Sc. in Geography (Environmental Planning and Policy) from Southern Illinois University. She began to research and study the environmental land ethics of Native Americans and reservation development for her undergraduate thesis, and throughout her education and professional experience, continued to be interested in sustainable development within different socio-cultural contexts. After working for an open-space county agency outside of Chicago, she moved to American Samoa in the South Pacific. There she is trying to establish a system whereby the public sees the value of preserving the natural resources and implementing a land use system that adopts more enforceable regulations to promote economic and cultural development through environmental stewardship. Sasha Graham is a research assistant with the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Southern Cross University. She is currently completing a Bachelor of Social Science at Southern Cross University. Freya Higgins-Desbiolles lectures at the School of International Business in the University of South Australia. She served on the Management Committee of the Responsible Tourism Network in Adelaide and was the Coordinator of the Global Education Centre for a number of years. She is now on the Management Committee of the International Institute for Peace through Tourism (Australia). She has worked with the Ngamndjeri community of South Australia for over seven years. Jeremy Huyton spent several years in the hotel industry holding various managerial positions before resuming his education and gaining a doctorate from the University of Birmingham in the UK. He currently lectures at the University of Canberra after holding posts at Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Charles Darwin University and the Australian International Hotel School. In addition to his teaching Jeremy has sought to establish training schemes for Australian Aboriginals, has business interests in China, and still finds time to develop his olive trees outside Canberra. Gloria Ingram is currently completing her doctoral studies at Edith Cowan University, Western Australia. She has long had an interest in Aboriginal Affairs having previously undertaken research and also has a sustained interest in phenomenology as a research process. Consequently she has contributed to the Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology including research on farm stay tourism. Henare Johnson is Postgraduate Researcher in the Centre for Maori and Indigenous Planning and Development, Lincoln University, New Zealand. His main research interest is Maori tourism and Maori economic development. Contributors nix Joseph E. Mbaiwa is a Research Fellow in Tourism Management at the Hany Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre, University of Botswana. He has a BA (Environmental Science), Post Graduate Diploma in Education and an M.Sc. (Environmental Science), all of which qualifications were obtained at the University of Botswana in 1992, 1993 and 1999 respectively. He is presently pursuing a doctorate degree in the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences at Texas A&M University, United States. His research interests centre on sustainable tourism development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and he has contributed to projects relating to local people participation in the tourism industry and the implementation of the Community-Based Natural Resource Management programme in the Okavango Delta. Alison McIntosh is Associate Professor at the Department of Tourism Management, University of Waikato Management School. She obtained her doctorate in the United Kingdom, and migrated to New Zealand in 1997. Her main research interests are in tourists' experiences of heritage and culture, and the sustainable development of indigenous tourism. Some of this latter research has been funded by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, and by the New Zealand Ministry for Maori Development, Te Puni K8kiri. She has obtained publications in leading journals such as Annals of Tourism Research and Tourism Management. Dieter K. Miiller lectures at the University of Umei in Sweden in the Department of Social and Economic Geography. He has a number of interests pertaining to tourism and its use of space, and recently completed research into patterns of holiday home ownership in addition to work completed with Robert Pettersson on Sami culture and its role in Swedish tourism. Sanjay Nepal is Assistant Professor at the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences at Texas A&M University. He holds a doctoral degree from the University of Bern, Switzerland. He is currently researching the involvement of local communities in tourism planning in British Columbia, Canada and in several protected areas in Nepal. He is also a co- author of Great Himalaya: Tourism and Dynamics of Change in Nepal and is a recognized expert relating to the impacts of tourism and environmental impacts in the Himalayas. In Canada he has obtained grants from the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council for research on biodiversity, human impacts and conservation. Robert Pettersson gained his doctorate in Human Geography from Umei University in Sweden. His thesis related to the development of Sami tourism in Northern Europe, which is also the subject of his book Sami Tourism in Northern Sweden - Supply, Demand and Interaction, published in 2004. He works as a researcher at the European Tourism Research Institute, ETOUR, in Ostersund, Sweden. His research interests are currently centred on indigenous tourism, tourism in peripheral areas, attitudes, accessibility and cultural events. He has published various papers on this issue, and has also published papers on second home ownership in Sweden for the Cerum Research Institute. Chris Ryan holds a doctoral degree from the Aston Business School, United Kingdom. He is the editor of Tourism Management, an elected member of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism and Professor of Tourism at the University of Waikato Management School and Visiting Professor at the Centre of Travel and Tourism, the University of Northumbria. xx Contributors Currently he is completing an audit of New Zealand's tourism research strategy for the New Zealand Ministry of Tourism. Birgit Trauer is completing her doctoral studies at the University of Queensland having graduated from Griffith University with a BA and the University of Waikato with a Post Graduate Diploma in Tourism Management. She has worked for a variety of businesses including Air India and other airlines, and as a consultant. Her teaching experience includes work at Lakehead and Queensland Universities. Iain Waller spent several years as a manager of properties and businesses before returning to do some post-graduate study where he accidentally ended up as an academic for a decade. After about 30 publications and a lot of fun with various research partners and topic areas, he has now returned to the business world and is enjoying the challenges of starting his own business and putting his theories into practice. Takayoshi Yamamura gained his doctorate in urban engineering from the Department of Urban Engineering, University of Tokyo, Japan. He is currently Associate Professor in Heritage Tourism Planning and Management at Kyoto Saga University of Arts, Japan and is a researcher at the National Museum of Ethnology in Osaka. Additionally he is a member of the ICOMOS International Committee on Historic Towns and Villages. His research interests pertain to culture, heritage, historic towns and for several years, since 1998, he has been monitoring changes in Lijiang, China; the subject of his contribution in this book. Other contributions on the same topic include his chapter entitled Authenticity, ethnicity and social transfonnation at World Heritage Sites: tourism, retailing and cultural change in Lijiang, China In Derek Hall's book, Tourism and Transition: Political, Economic and Social Issues, while he has also published various other papers relating to the same topic in journals such as Tourism - an interdisciplinary journal and Acta Scientiarum Naturalium. Preface At the time of writing, May 2004, the issue of the rights of indigenous peoples remains salient. In the editors’ country, New Zealand, a debate over Maori claims to the foreshore under the Treaty of Waitangi has sparked a national debate about the constitutional position of Maori in an increasingly multi-cultural society. The then current Government was tending toward the establishment of a Royal Commission to assess these issues and their constitutional implications, but even as we write in early May 2004, the issues remain unsolved and contentious. Further, but a matter of months prior to our completion of the text, in March 2004, Australia again faced the problem of the marginalization of Australian Aboriginal peoples and more particularly an urban-based, economically-deprived grouping, as Aboriginal people noted in the streets of the Sydney suburb of Redfern following the death of Thomas Hickey in a police car chase. In Kuala Lumpur, in February 2004, indigenous peoples made representations calling for a full recognition of indigenous rights to their traditional territories, genetic resources and traditional knowledge at the Seventh Conference of the Parties (COP-7) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held under the auspices of the United Nations. In Canada, in February 2003, the British Columbia Court of Appeal, in what has come to be known as the Haida Decision, upheld the right of indigenous peoples to be involved in and give free prior informed consent to developments initiated by governments and private corporations as they affect traditional territories. It thus seems that a world of turmoil exists with reference to the rights of indigenous peoples; and yet it exists in face of a curiously indifferent and unknowing population given that generally so little of the issues emerge in the news on occasions other than those of riots or specific conclaves that initiate public exhibitions of dissent. Thus, on many occasions, the public face of indigenous peoples is one of anger and of claims that to many seem extreme. Rarely do the media seek to rationalize such sentiments and at times it appears that debate comprises the utterance of slogans on both sides of the issue. That this need not be so was exhibited by the New Zealand Herald’s examination of New Zealand’s foreshore debate, the customary title of Maori to coastal waters and the nature of the Treaty of Waitangi in many long articles in February and March 2004. Given that the media help shape perceptions of place and peoples, the role of not simply the news media, but that media associated with tourism promotion might deserve examination, particularly if the relationship of tourism to the wider social issues is to be understood. There then exists a paradox. On the one hand there appears little public concern over such issues as indigenous peoples’ claims to rights over biological diversities and DNA xxii Preface that emanate from their traditional lands until some “news-worthy event” usually based on discord occurs. However, on the other hand, tourism promotional bodies both: (a) exhort the importance of tourism based on indigenous people’s cultures in the portfolio mix of tourism product that a country has to offer as meeting a growing demand in “cultural tourism”; while (b) simultaneously holding out a promise that tourism can generate income and employment for communities traditionally marginalized from the economic mainstream. Therefore there appears little reason to doubt the importance of tourism based on indigenous peoples’ cultures, either as part of tourism itself or as part of a wider social movement, and that in itself would justify a book looking at these issues. That this specific book emerged was due to a much more prosaic reason. In December 2003 the University of Waikato Management School’s Department of Tourism Management hosted a conference entitled Taking Tourism to the Limits. One of the approaches suggested to potential delegates was to consider issues pertaining to liminality, especially with reference to indigenous tourism. This topic was selected for a number of reasons, including the interests of the conference convenors and the University’s location and tradition. For example, the University is a leasee of land awarded to the Tanui tribe under a land settlement, while one of the evening events was a visit to the Rotowhio Marae where delegates were hosted by representatives of the Te Arawa people at the New Zealand Institute for Maori Arts and Crafts. This evening proved both enjoyable and interesting, particularly as our hosts patiently dealt with questions from 100 or more academics about what it meant to be Maori in contem- porary society. Essentially the answer that emerged was that it was a personally enriching experience as those concerned enjoyed the advantages of living in both Maori and non-Maori societies. For whatever reasons, one of the best subscribed themes in the conference was that dealing with indigenous peoples and tourism, and thus for the most part the book comprises chapters derived from those papers. Additionally papers have been included based on published works, and the due recognitions are formally recounted in the acknowledgements. The purpose of the book is therefore to complement earlier collections edited by colleagues and friends, notably those of Dick Butler and Tom Hinch (Tourism and Indigenous Peoples, 1996) and Mike Robinson and Priscilla Boniface (Tourism and Cultural Conflicts, 1999). In doing so it represents an update of research while perhaps illustrating that the same themes of control and presentation still exist. This book perhaps differs from the others by endorsing a strict definition of indigenous peoples as defined by the United Nations. By reason of the location of the conference the book is slanted toward experiences in Australasia, if only because of the experiences and research of the editors; but cognizance of a wider global phenomenon is provided with reference to research in China, Scandinavia and Canada. In an attempt to provide some coherence to what might otherwise appear to be a disparate group of papers, the editors have provided some linking text seeking to contextualize the individual chapters, and it is hoped that contributors will not look askance at such attempts. Finally, the book would not have come into being were it not for the kindness of immediate colleagues both during the conference itself and subsequent to that event as the editors “escaped” the rigors of daily office attendance. The Preface xxiii support of Stephen Page as editor of the Elsevier series must also be noted as he smoothed the path toward publication, of Tom Clark at Elsevier for trusting in the project, and finally to the co-ordinating editor at Elsevier, Hannah Collet. For their support, the editors are truly thankful! Chris Ryan and Michelle Aicken Editors