IMPERIAL ROMAN WARSHIPS 27 BC–193 AD RAFFAELE D’AMATO ILLUSTRATED BY GIUSEPPE RAVA Author Illustrator Dr Raffaele D’Amato is an experienced researcher of the Giuseppe Rava was born in Faenza in 1963, and took an ancient and medieval military worlds. After achieving his first interest in all things military from an early age. Entirely PhD in Romano-Byzantine Law, and having collaborated with self-taught, Giuseppe has established himself as a leading the University of Athens, he gained a second doctorate in military history artist, and is inspired by the works of the Roman military archaeology. He currently works in Istanbul great military artists, such as Detaille, Meissonier, Röchling, at the Fatih University as visiting Professor for the TUBITAK Lady Butler, Ottenfeld and Angus McBride. He lives and works (Turkish Government Research Institution) on a project linked in Italy. to the arms and armour of Rome and Byzantium. Other titles in the series NVG No: 47 • ISBN: 978 1 84176 349 1 NVG No: 62 • ISBN: 978 1 84176 443 6 NVG No: 89 • ISBN: 978 1 84176 634 8 NVG No: 132 • ISBN: 978 1 84603 074 1 NVG No: 196 • ISBN: 978 1 84908 978 4 NVG No: 225 • ISBN: 978 1 4728 0827 1 NEW VANGUARD 230 IMPERIAL ROMAN WARSHIPS 27 BC–197 AD RAFFAELE D'AMATO ILLUSTRATED BY GIUSEPPE RAVA This electronic edition published 2016 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc DEDICATION In Memoriam Géza Alföldy First published in Great Britain in 2016 by Osprey Publishing, PO Box 883, Oxford, OX1 9PL, UK ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PO Box 3985, New York, NY 10185-3985, USA E-mail: [email protected] A great number of people, museums, and institutions have contributed to this book. A very special thanks must be given to Admiral Domenico Carro, Osprey Publishing, part of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc who again shared with me his precious knowledge of the Roman Navy, enriching the book with wonderful illustrations. Prof. Livio Zerbini of © 2016 Osprey Publishing Ltd. Ferrara University has been as always invaluable in helping to obtain from different museums and institutions permission to see and photograph the All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private relevant material. study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, The material related to the Musei Capitolini, the Antiquarium of the Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be Palatino and the Museo Nazionale di Palazzo Massimo has been obtained reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by thanks to D.ssa Marina Mattei, curator of the Musei Capitolini and director any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, of the Excavations of the Area Sacra di Largo Argentina, and thanks to the photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written courtesy of D.ssa Rita Paris, director of the Museo Nazionale Romano. I permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the would also like to thank Dr. Andrea Camilli who allowed me to publish Publishers. precious material from the wonderful site of San Rossore. The finds of Comacchio, have been published thanks only to the invaluable A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library help and collaboration of Dr. Fede Berti of the Museo Archeologico of ISBN (print): 978-1-4728-1089-2 Ferrara, to whom I would like to express all my gratitude for her assistance ISBN (ePub): 978-1-4728-1091-5 in the field. Dr.ssa Giuseppina Ghini has been so kind in allowing me to ISBN (ePDF): 978-1-4728-1090-8 publish material from the new museum of the Nemi ship, and allowing me to visit and inspect the material. Index by  Sharon Redmayne For the photographic credits I would like to thank the following museums Typeset in Sabon and Myriad Pro and institutions: the Museo Archeologico Nazionale of Aquileia; the Museo Originated by PDQ Media, Bungay, UK Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli; the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia; the Museo of Ostia Antica; the Museo To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com. della civiltà Romana; the British Museum; the Musée Carnavalet; and the Here you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events Antikenmuseum der Universitaet Leipzig. and the option to sign up for our newsletters. Special thanks must be given also for the always precious assistance and inestimable help in collecting the photographic material, searching the Osprey Publishing/Shire Publications supports the Woodland Trust, the UK’s sources, preparing the drawings, patiently assisting in my various travels leading woodland conservation charity. Between 2014 and 2018 our and in many other numerous activities, to Dr. Andrea Salimbeti and Dr. donations are being spent on their Centenary Woods project in the UK. Massimo Bizzarri. Last but not least, I am deeply grateful to my dear friend and illustrator, Giuseppe Rava, who has provided a new and splendid set of www.ospreypublishing.com  illustrations on the Imperial Roman Navy. Title page image: A detail from a wall painting from the same temple as the Isis fresco, showing the stern of another warship. The ship is entering a harbour, its deck packed with soldiers. Note the twin steering oars. Reconstruction on plate H. (Naples, National Archaeological Museum, author’s photograph, courtesy of the museum) GLOSSARY Antennae: pennons Parodos: gangway àphlaston (aplustre): the raising of the stern Proembolion: fore ram or subsidiary ram that projects forwards above the Carina: keel waterline ram, whose purpose is to prevent entanglement or damage to the ship’s superstructure at the bow, during ramstrikes Costae: the ribs of the ship Puppis: stern Epotis, επωτις: thick beam at the forward end of an outrigger or oarbox, cathead. More in detail, the ear-like projection on each side of the bow of Rostrum: ram the oared warship formed by a beam lying athwartships at the forward end Rudentes: ropes of the oarboxes so to protect them from damage in bow to bow collision. skinì: stern shelter Foredeck: the deck forward of the epotis, and aft of the stempost Spina, tropis: keel Gubernaculum: rudder Stempost: the curved timber rising from the keel in the bow and Harmoniai: joints made of mortises and tenons to fasten the ribs and culminating in an ornament or figure-head planks to the hull of the ship Stolos: ornament of the prow Louvre: protected ventilation course Stylis: a pole, generally fitted with a short crosspiece, which was set up Malo: mast across the aplustre and bore the device of the ship, usually the flag Navis, Naves: ship, ships Thalamites: the lowermost oarsmen on a three-level warship Navita: helmsman Thranites: rowers in the topmost reme in a multireme warship Parasimon, παρασημον: panel on each side of the bow of a warship facing Vela: sail half-front containing a symbol or figure illustrating the ship’s name Wale: assemblage end to end of thick and broad planks along a ship’s side Parexeiresia, παρεξειρεσια: outriggers, auxiliary fittings for the oars, small and worked into the hull planking. arches on the external structure of the hull on which the oars of the traniti Zygites: middle oarsmen on a three-level warship found their foothold CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 4 THE ROMAN NAVY IN THE EARLY EMPIRE 4 • The Year of the Four Emperors EMPLOYMENT OF THE FLEET IN CONQUEST WARS • The Conquest of Dacia (101–106 AD) • The Roman fleet in the Bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum (166–180 AD) • The naval blitzkrieg of Septimius Severus (197 AD) THE ORGANIZATION OF THE IMPERIAL ROMAN NAVY 15 • The Roman fleets of Classis (Ravenna) and Misenum • The Provincial Fleets IMPERIAL ROMAN WARSHIPS AND BOATS 24 • The evolution of the Biremes  • The evolution of the Triremes  • The evolution of the Quadriremes and Quinquiremes  • The Hexeris or Six and the Deceris  • The Actuaria and the Oneraria  • Structure and Construction • Armament and Decoration FIGHTING ON THE SEA: ROMAN NAVAL TACTICS IN THE EARLY EMPIRE 43 BIBLIOGRAPHY 46 INDEX 48 IMPERIAL ROMAN WARSHIPS 27 BC–197 AD INTRODUCTION The Roman Empire was not only built by the strength of the legions, but also by a navy that was one of the most powerful maritime forces ever to have existed. It was only the existence of Rome’s fleet that secured its trade routes and maintained communications within the huge Empire. At the height of its power the Roman Navy employed tens of thousands of sailors, marines and craftsmen, coming from every corner of the three continents under the rule of the Caesars. This powerful navy allowed the Empire to maintain naval supremacy throughout Europe, North Africa and Fresco, 54–68 AD, Odysseus’ Western Asia for the first two centuries of its existence. Therefore Imperial ship. In this fresco fragment, Rome poured a great deal of manpower, money and resources into its navies, Odysseus’ ship is a cataphract perfecting the use of warships not only at sea, but also on the great rivers of Roman warship, with parapets Europe. This meant that large quantities of soldiers, goods and materials for the crew and closed boxes for the oarsmen. Note the could be transported by river, which was fundamental to the success of the yellow colours of the oars and great military operations in Germania and Dacia. As correctly noted by the white prow (prora). (British Pitassi, water was one of the key elements that decided how the Empire Museum, London, photograph would grow and expand. courtesy of Domenico Carro) The number of Roman shipwreck finds in recent years has greatly increased archaeologists’ knowledge of Roman shipbuilding techniques, and of the rich material culture of the ships’ crews. Despite the fact that no real Roman warship has been identified or made public, the archaeological information gathered from other Roman shipwrecks, coupled with the very rich iconography of the period, has allowed us to reconstruct the key warship types of this glorious age of Imperial Roman power. THE ROMAN NAVY IN THE EARLY EMPIRE In 31 BC, in the aftermath of Actium,1 Octavian – now Emperor Augustus – commanded not only the combined legions of his own and Mark Antony’s armies, but also a number of strong naval formations. The fleet that had won 1 For information on the earlier Roman navy, see NVG 225: Republican Roman Warships 509–27 BC by the same author 4 the decisive victory numbered about 400 ships. This victorious fleet was in Warships on the Isis fresco, the Mediterranean along with the captured ships and crews of former Pompeii, first century AD. The enemies, especially those of Sextus Pompeius, and this included around 700 two ships advancing under oar on the fresco in the Temple of ships of all kinds. In the northern seas the formations of Julius Caesar were Isis show half of the bow and still operating along the coasts of Gaul. The fleets that sailed along the Rhine the port side. One of the ships and to the east, in the Pontus Euxinus, were still those created by Pompey. (left) has a forward curving All the ships that had belonged to Antony were positioned in the Levant, as (Carthaginian style) stempost with an àkrostolion similar to it seems that, in both cases, most of the ships had been moved from their the bird’s head visible on bases to reinforce Augustus’ fleet at Actium. ancient Carthaginian coins. Augustus used these ships as the basis of a new Roman standing navy, on This, and the more ‘Roman’ the model of the navies of the Hellenistic Kingdoms. He wanted to create a appearance of the second ship (right), has led Morrison to permanent naval force with its own permanent bases; for the fleet’s importance believe the scene might be a had been clearly demonstrated during the war against Sextus Pompeius and historical representation of the in the final clash with Antony and Cleopatra. According to the Monumentum Punic Wars. The main deck of Ancyranum (Res Gestae Divi Augusti, 3), of the 600 ships captured from both ships is packed with marines armed with shields and Augustus during the civil wars, some were burned, but 300 of them – mainly spears. (Naples, National the ones taken from Cleopatra at Actium – formed the bulk of the fleet of Archaeological Museum, inv. Forum Julii, the new military harbour built in the south of Gaul, which was LSRS 35b, SSAW 133,973, destined to control the coasts of Spain and Gaul. Beside the Forum Julii, author’s photograph, courtesy of the museum) Augustus created two stronger military harbours for two Praetorian Fleets (Classes Praetoriae): one at Misenum (Classis Misenensis), at the northern end of the Bay of Naples, to cover the south-west of the Mediterraenan Sea, and the second at Ravenna (Classis Ravennatis), to control the Adriatic. The choice of the two locations was due merely to strategic needs: to have large and safe harbours that possessed good land communications. Ravenna was perfectly situated to control the whole of the Adriatic, and especially to watch for possible piratical activity on the Dalmatian coast; and from there the conquest of Illyricum could be supplied and reinforced. The Misenum fleet was best placed to intercept any seaborne attack from Africa or the East against Rome. A certain number of outposts were also mantained, such as Ostia, the harbour of Rome. From the moment that Augustus consolidated his power, the entire Mediterranean was a Roman-controlled sea, but during the Imperial age this did not exclude the occasional outbreak of piracy. In this time, the Mediterranean also saw Roman fleets engaging in combat during the civil wars. With the consolidation of the Empire, the Romans now controlled territory bordering the Atlantic as well as rivers such as the Rhine, the Danube and the Nile. Classes or fleets became a standard part of the armed forces. Their main duties were to protect maritime trade, maintain Imperial 5 CHRONOLOGY 31–30 BC After the battle of Actium, the young Gaius Julius 18–19 AD The fleet escorts Germanicus in the east and, later, his Caesar Octavianus (Emperor Augustus) is the sole body at his State funeral (Tacitus, Annales, II, 53–9; III, 1) master of the Res Publica. Augustus makes new 24 AD The Classis Ravennatis is engaged in the repression of arrangements for the Roman fleets, stationing a fleet at revolts at Brundisium (modern Brindisi); from 24 AD, Misenum (in the Bay of Naples) and another at the fleet is stationed here on a permanent basis in Ravenna (on the Adriatic coast), to defend the Upper order to control the Adriatic Sea and Lower seas (Suetonius, Aug., 49) 28 AD Frisian insurrection; the Roman fleet is concentrated 29 BC N aumachia (gladiatorial naval battle) organised by on the Rhine; Caius Poppeus Sabinus is commander of Augustus; Agrippa establishes the headquarters of the the Classis Moesica (on the Danube) fleet at Portum Argonautorum, inside the Campus Martius at Rome 36 AD The Classis Ravennatis is sent by Emperor Tiberius in Cilicia to crush a new attempt at piracy by the 26 BC Naval campaign of Aelius Gallus, Praefectus Aegypti inhabitants (Prefect of Egypt), against the Arabian Sabei, with 80 warships and 130 onerariae of the Classis Arabica  39 AD Naval and land raids by Caius Caligula in Germania 25 BC Naval and land operations of Gaius Petronius, the new 41–42 AD The revolt in Mauretania (in modern Algeria) is crushed Egyptian Prefect, against the Ethiopians (the Meroites, by Claudius who creates the Mauretania Caesariensis, Strabo, 17,1,54) with its capital Colonia Claudia Caesarea (modern Cherchell) elevated to the status of military harbour 16 BC Campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius on the upper and lower Danube; creation of the first nucleus of the later 43 AD Invasion of Britannia and creation of the powerful Classis Pannonica and Classis Moesica  Classis Britannica; 300 onerariae, escorted by the Classes Germanica and Britannica, transport the 40,000 14 BC Agrippa sails east with the fleet to visit the Provincia men of the invasion force and meets Herod the Great (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XVI, 2, 1) 45 AD The Classis Moesica restores a king loyal to Roman interests in the Kingdom of the Pontus Euxinus (the 12 BC Creation of the first nucleus of the future Classis Black Sea) Germanica by Drusus; campaigns and explorations by Drusus from the lower Rhine to the North Sea; the ships 46 AD Definitive annexation of Thracia and creation of the of the Bructeri, a Germanic tribe, are destroyed by the Classis Perinthia   Roman fleet; the Romans create Provincia Germanica  47 AD The historian Tacitus is with the fleet in Scandinavia 4 AD Tiberius’ fleet sails up the Albis (now the Elba) river, the 50 AD The rebellious Welsh tribes of Siluri are attacked by the Roman ships reach Norway Roman fleet 9 AD After the disaster of Teutoburgus, the Roman fleet, 52 AD The Classis Germanica destroys a small fleet of the with 15,000 men of the Classes Praetoriae and 15,000 of rebellious Chauci; Roman ships operate on the the Classis Germanica, is stationed in permanent bases southwestern coasts of Britannia along the Rhine 54 AD Inauguration of Portus, the harbour of Rome, in the 16 AD A fleet of 1,000 ships is built by Germanicus (Tacitus, presence of the Emperor Nero Annales., II, 6) for the operations in Germany on the Rhine; the Roman fleet sails from the mouth of the 62 AD Creation of the Classis Pontica for Corbulo’s operations Rhine (in the modern Netherlands) eastward as far as against the Parthians on the Pontus Euxinus the lands of the Cimbri (Res Gestae Divi Augusti, 26); a 66 AD Fast Roman liburns (liburnicae) escort the informer victorious Roman land and naval campaign is fought Antistius Sosianus to Rome (Tacitus, Annales, XVI, 14) against the Dacians of the Classis Moesica on the lower Danube 67 AD The Classis Alexandrina support the Roman army of Vespasianus in the repression of the Jewish Revolt 68 AD Nero unsuccessfully asks for the help of the naval squadron of Ostia to escape to Egypt; the naval base of Forum Julii (at modern Frejus) is abandoned with only with a small detachment of the Classis Misenensis left; the classes of the Rhine and Italy are involved in the civil war; the provincial fleets do not take part in the civil war, but stay inactive under the orders of the local governors 69 AD During the Year of the Four Emperors, a fleet of Emperor Otho sets sail in February, to raid the southern coast of Gaul and delay the advance of Valens, legatus Liburna, detail of the Isis fresco, Pompeii, first century AD. (Naples, National of the Emperor Vitellius; the rebellion of Anicetus, Archaeological Museum, author’s photograph, courtesy of the museum) whose fleet conquers Trabzon (on the Black Sea in 6 101–106 AD The fleets of the Classis Moesica and the Classes Praetoriae are engaged in the First and Second Dacian Wars under the Emperor Trajan 106 AD Roman ships, probably of the Classis Arabica, operate in the Indian Ocean; the fleet is also involved in the military operations connected to the creation of the Provincia of Arabia by Trajan 117 AD To put down the Jewish riots that were formenting in the Levant, Cyrene, Egypt and Judea, the Romans send units of the Classis Misenensis in the East, to help to restore order; disembarked sailors and soldiers escort the Emperor Trajan and negotiate with local leaders for the security of maritime routes 122 AD The Classis Germanica ferries the Legio VI Victrix from the Rhine to Britannia, to Newcastle upon Tyne; in A relief shaped like the ram of a ship, representing the triumphant Agrippa, Egypt the Emperor Hadrian orders the Classis last quarter of the first century BC. In this relief, typical of the Rostrum shape Alexandrina to launch a naval squadron in the Red Sea celebrating the naval victories, Agrippa, victor of Actium, is celebrated, against piratical activity in the area crowned by a winged victory. (Antikenmuseum der Universitaet Leipzig, inv. 99059, author’s photograph, courtesy of the museum) 144–150 AD Campaigns of Emperor Antoninus Pius against the Moors in North Africa and naval operations of the modern Turkey), is put down by the Legatus Geminus Syriaca and Alexandrina fleets with land and naval forces; revolt of Gaius Julius Civilis 166 AD Roman naval embassy sent to China by the Emperor, 69 AD, Cornelius Fuscus, legatus of Vespasian, is the new Marcus Aurelius September commander of the Classis Ravennatis; the old 168 AD Owing to the invasions of Quadi and Marcomanni, the commander, Bassus, is arrested and brought to Atria Classis Pontica moves to Cyzicus from Trapezus, to stop on board a warship; the Vitellian loyalists capture three any attempt by the Barbarians to cross into Asia galleys of the same Classis on the river Po, killing all marines and sailors; a combined action of the Classis 168–180 AD The Roman fleets of the Danube are involved in the Ravennatis and the Classis of Forum Julii put to an end Marcomannic Wars of Emperor Marcus Aurelius the resistance of Valens, last general of Vitellius; in 170–171 AD The Classis Misenensis suppresses piratical activity of Germany, after the failed double attempt of Civilis to the tribes southwest of Mauritania conquest Vetera, the rest of the Classis Germanica loyal to Rome is stationed in Confluentes (Koblenz) 184 AD The Classis Britannica ferries troops from Britannia, under their commander Lucius Artorius Castus, in 69 AD, Clash between units of the Classis Britannica and Armorica, to suppress an uprising December the ships of Civilis on the western shores of the Rhine; the Roman ships are mainly destroyed; the Roman 192 AD The Classes Ravennatis and Misenensis align fleet on the Rhine is reorganized by Cerialis, and themselves with Emperor Septimius Severus against eventually Civilis surrenders Didius Julianus; the Italian fleets ferry his men to the Balkans, for the civil war against Pescennius Niger. 71 AD Operations of the Classis Britannica in the North, under Naval blockade and conquest of Byzantium by Cerialis, convey troops and supplies for the Septimius Severus establishment of a new naval base, Petuaria (now in East Yorkshire) 197 AD The Fleet of Severus attacks and raids Ctesiphon on the river Euphrates 78 AD In the east the Classis Pontica stamps out the last vestiges of piracy in the Pontus Euxinus  79 AD The Classis Misenensis, under Pliny the Elder, is engaged in helping refugees from the eruption of Vesuvius in Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia 80 AD Advance of Agricola in Caledonia with the support of the fleet on both east and west coasts of Scotland; the Romans arrive in the Orcades (Orkney Islands) 82–85 AD The ships of Agricola arrive on Ireland’s coasts; naval and land offensive against the Caledonians on the river Tay; further operations in the area interrupted by the Dacian incursions on the Danube, cause serious losses Roman cargo carrier rostrata, from the mosaic of the Guildes, c. 122 AD. to the Classis Moesica  Many ships among those represented in this famous mosaic are smaller 89 AD The Classis Germanica puts down the incursion of the versions of the bigger warships. The smallest ships were used by the Chatti, and receives from Emperor Domitianus the title army for exploratory duties, and were called naves lusoriae. (Ostia, in situ, of Pia Fidelis  photo courtesy of Domenico Carro) 7 communications and to transport, supply and support the army during military campaigns. During this period, in which the fleet was widely employed against the Germanic tribes in North Europe, the Roman fleet pushed to the Empire’s furthest extent along the coasts of the North Sea, marred by great difficulties and shipwrecks due to the often treacherous weather conditions (Tacitus, Annales II 6–8, 23–24). The Year of the Four Emperors In addition to the campaigns in North Europe and the extensive deployment of the fleet in Claudius’ 43 AD invasion of Britannia, the Roman fleets are also mentioned by historians as the protagonists of fierce clashes in the civil wars of 69 AD, the Year of the Four Emperors. With no serious maritime rivals in its home waters in the early Empire, the Roman navy saw little action in the Mediterranean except during these civil wars. The commanders of the fleets were not exempt from personal risks. During Vitellius’ insurrection in that tumultuous year, the commander of the Classis These two ships show triremes Germanica, Julius Burdo, was threatened with death by his soldiers, and was of the Misenensis fleet, one of saved only by the personal intervention of Vitellius. which may be a flagship. The Tacitus (Hist. 2, 12, 1) speaks expressly about the sea power of Emperor two reliefs show stemposts and Otho, the second emperor of 69 AD, who was able to block the Adriatic three levels of oars, but there are several differences between Sea. Thanks to this maritime power, he dispatched a strong fleet of the them. The ship without a flag Classis Misenensis to the southern coast of Gaul (Gallia Narbonensis), recalls the ship of the Praeneste although the number of embarked troops (Urbaniciani and Praetoriani) relief. By making the details of and marines was relatively small. His aim was most likely to reach and the ship larger, the artist is suggesting that it is a bigger conquer the important new military harbour of Forum Julii there. The fleet ship. (Pozzuoli reliefs, 25 BC–25 set sail from Ostia, and made its way up the western Italian coast. But strife AD, originals and cast from the between the commanders provoked a mutiny, and the appointed general, Naples National Archaeological Aemilius Pacencis, was put in chains. Museum, Museum, inv. LSRS 32a and b, SSAW 129, 131, B. The new commander, Suedius Clemens, was unable to control the sailors 962,963 and from Museum of and the troops. According to Tacitus, the fleet created havoc wherever it put the Civiltà Romana, Roma. in, even when it was still in Italian territory. The soldiers pillaged, murdered, Author’s and Domenico Carro’s sacked and burned the coasts in their four days of navigation towards Gaul; photos, courtesy of the their victims had not expected this assault to come from the sea. When the museums) fleet reached the tiny province of the Maritime Alps, the Procurator, Marius Maturus, tried to organize resistence, using a local militia of young men. But untrained and with no experience of war, these young people took flight 8