RICE UNIVERSITY Imitation, Awareness; and Folk Linguistic Artifacts by Elizabeth Gentry Brunner A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQillREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: .I ~~ -Katherine Crosswhite, Assistant Professor of Linguistics Philip Kortum, Professor-in-the-practice and Faculty Fellow of Psychology HOUSTON, TEXAS SEPTEMBER 2010 Copyright Elizabeth Gentry Brunner 2010 Abstract Imitation, Awareness, and Folk Linguistic Artifacts by Elizabeth Gentry Brunner Imitations are sophisticated performances displaying regular patterns. The study of imitation allows linguiSts to understand speakers' perceptions of sociolinguistic variation. In this dissertation, I analyze imitations of non-native accents in order to answer two questions: what can imitation reveal about perception, and how are folk linguistic artifacts (Preston 1996) involved in imitation? These questions are approached from the framework offolk linguistic awareness (Preston 1996). By redefining the concept of salience according to the modes of folk linguistic awareness, I am able to more precisely consider how imitation reflects salience. I address both of these questions by eliciting imitations from speakers in which folk artifacts are present. For my investigation, twenty speakers read a short passage in English. Ten were non-native speakers of American English (NNAE) and ten were native speakers of American English (AE). The AE speakers were recorded reading the passage in their regular voice and with two types of imitated accents: free imitations, which were spontaneously produced, and modeled imitations, which were produced directly after hearing the NNAE speakers. Free imitations revealed folk linguistic artifacts, while modeled imitations were more reflective of the immediate target. Participants listened to the authentic and imitated accents and were asked to determine the accent and authenticity of each speaker. I found that there was not a significant difference in the pitch and vowels between free and modeled AE imitations, which indicated that these aspects of imitations are largely based on folk linguistic artifacts. Listeners were able to determine which voices were authentic and which were imitated. Listeners were also able to identify the speakers' accents, perhaps aided by the folk artifact status of these particular accents. Listeners were better at identifying the accents of free imitations than modeled imitations, which suggested that listeners prefer imitations that are solely based on folk artifacts. Overall, I found that imitation is a valuable tool for the analysis of speech perception. The modes of folk linguistic awareness are useful in interpreting imitations and understanding salience. This research shows that folk linguistic artifacts are the foundation of imitations and an important tool in perceptual categorization. Acknowledgments I'm grateful to many people for their help along the way. Thanks to my adviser Nancy Niedzielski, who read draft after draft and didn't complain about my constant phone calls. Thanks also to my other two committee members, Katherine Crosswhite and Phil Kortum, whose doors were always open. A big thank you goes to all of the participants, and particularly the ones who took the survey for free. Thanks to Caroline Nganga for running the statistics that I couldn't. lowe so much to Michelle Morrison and Andrew Pantos, who have been with me through every step of graduate school. They made the good better and the not-so good bearable, and I treasure their friendship. Thanks also to my officemate Chris Koops, who was always up for discussing data. The ladies of the Rice Graduate Christian Fellowship helped me remember that there are things more important than a dissertation, and the importance of living intentionally, and I'm so grateful to have had their support and prayers throughout my time at Rice. I have to thank my entire family for their support and prayers also. My parents in particular have encouraged me every step of the way, and my brothers kept their loving "You're still in school?!" teasing to a minimum. v A huge thank you goes to my amazing husband, Gregory. He was always patient and realistic about this process, and read through many drafts himself. He knew how to motivate me every step of the way. This is a better dissertation because of him, and more importantly, I am a better person because of him. Finally, I am overwhelmed with gratitude to God for giving me this opportunity. I hope that in some little way my experience in graduate school has brought Him glory. vi To my parents Table of Contents ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................. VI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................................... VII LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... IX LIST 0 F TABLES .................................................................................................................................... XI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 LINGUISTIC AWARENESS .............................................................................................................................. 2 1.1.1 SociolinguistiC Approaches to Awareness. .................................................................................. 3 1.1.2 Folk Linguistic Awareness ................................................................................................................. 7 1.2 FOLK LINGUISTIC ARTIFACTS ................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 IMITATION .................................................................................................................................................... 18 1.3.1 Salience and Imitation ..................................................................................................................... 22 1.3.2 Complexities of Imitation Research ............................................................................................ 25 1.4 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER 2 CAN LISTENERS IDENTIFY ACCENTS? A PILOT STUDy ................................ 30 2.1 ACCENT RECOGNITION SURVEY ............................................................................................................... 30 2.2 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................... 32 2.3 RESUL TS ........................................................................................................................................................ 33 2.4 THE ROLE OF INTERACTION ..................................................................................................................... 41 2.5 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................................. 43 2.6 IMPLICATIONS AND FOLK ARTIFACTS ..................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY FOR A STUDY OF FOLK ARTIFACT IMITATION AND IDENTIFICATION ................................................................................................................................. 48 3.1 MOTIVATION ................................................................................................................................................ 48 3.2 HyPOTHESES ................................................................................................................................................ 50 3.3 EXPERIMENT ................................................................................................................................................ 52 3.3.1 NNAE Speakers .................................................................................................................................... 52 3.3.2 AE Speakers ........................................................................................................................................... 54 3.3.3 Listeners ................................................................................................................................................. 56 3.3.4 Procedure ............................................................................................................................................... 57 3.3.5 Phonetic Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 60 3.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................ 63 CHAPTER 4 SPEAKER RESULTS .................................................................................................. 65 4.1 AE SPEAKERS ............................................................................................................................................... 65 4.1.1 Pitch .......................................................................................................................................................... 67 4.1.2 Duration ................................................................................................................................................. 68 4.1.3 Fl ............................................................................................................................................................... 76 4.1.4 F2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 81 4.1.5 Vowel Space .......................................................................................................................................... 90 4.1.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 91 4.2 NNAE SPEAKERS ........................................................................................................................................ 93 4.2.1 Pitch .......................................................................................................................................................... 94 viii 4.2.2 Duration ................................................................................................................................................. 94 4.2.3 Vowel Space .......................................................................................................................................... 96 4.2.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 98 4.3 COMPARING AE AND NNAE VOICES ....................................................................................................... 99 4.3.1 Pitch ....................................................................................................................................................... 100 4.3.2 Duration .............................................................................................................................................. 100 4.3.3 Fl ............................................................................................................................................................ 104 4.3.4 F2 ............................................................................................................................................................ 105 4.3.5 Vowel Space ....................................................................................................................................... 107 4.3.6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................... 108 4.4 SUMMARY OF SPEAKER RESULTS .......................................................................................................... 109 CHAPTER 5 LISTENER RESULTS ............................................................................................... 111 5.1 Do LISTENERS IDENTIFY THE ACCENTS THEY HEAR? ....................................................................... 112 5.1.1 Overall .................................................................................................................................................. 112 5.1.2 Imitated and Authentic Voices ................................................................................................... 114 5.2 Do LISTENERS IDENTIFY THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE ACCENTS? ................................................... 116 5.2.1 Overall .................................................................................................................................................. 116 5.2.2 Imitated and Authentic Voices ................................................................................................... 118 5.3 Do LISTENERS IDENTIFY THE FREE IMITATIONS AND MODELED IMITATIONS DIFFERENTLY?. 118 5.3.1 Accent Identification of Free and Modeled Imitations .................................................... 120 5.3.2 Authenticity Identification of Free and Modeled Imitations ........................................ 120 5.4 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 121 5.4.1 Identification by Language ......................................................................................................... 121 5.4.2 Identification ofA ccent and Authenticity ............................................................................. 126 5.4.3 Linguist judgments and Listener Identification ................................................................. 127 5.4.4 Listener Accuracy and Confidence ........................................................................................... 128 5.4.5 Listener Accuracy and Familiarity .......................................................................................... 131 5.5 SUMMARY OF LISTENER RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 133 CHAPTER 6 TOWARDS A THEORY OF FOLK ARTIFACT IMITATION ............................. 136 6.1 HyPOTHESES ............................................................................................................................................. 136 6.2 IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 140 6.2.1 Implications for Folk Linguistic Awareness ......................................................................... 141 6.2.2 Implications for Folk Linguistic Artifacts ............................................................................. 143 6.2.3 Implications for Other Fields ...................................................................................................... 145 6.3 FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................................................................................................. 147 6.4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 150 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 151 APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................ 158 APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................ 159 APPENDIX C. ........................................................................................................................................ 162 List of Figures FIGURE 1 HYPOTHETICAL CHART OF VARIOUS INDEPENDENT POSITIONS ON THE CONTINUA OF MODES OF FOLK LINGUISTIC AWARENESS ........................................................................................................................... 9 FIGURE 2 FREE IDENTIFICATION OF KOREAN VOICES, FROM LINDEMANN 2003 ........................................... 15 FIGURE 3 CORRECT IDENTIFICATION OF SPEAKERS' COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN .................................................... 34 FIGURE 4 CORRECT IDENTIFICATION OF SPEAKERS' GEOGRAPHIC REGION OF ORIGIN ................................... 37 FIGURE 5 CORRECT IDENTIFICATION OF SPEAKERS' NATIVE LANGUAGES ........................................................ 38 FIGURE 6 CORRECT IDENTIFICATION OF SPEAKERS' NATIVE LANGUAGE FAMILy ...................................... ·. ... • 40 FIGURE 7 MOST POPULAR COUNTRY RESPONSES ................................................................................................... 46 FIGURE 8 SNAPSHOT OF SURVEY INSTRUMENT, WHERE LANGUAGE (ACCENT) IS ASSESSED ........................ 59 FIGURE 9 SNAPSHOT OF SURVEY INSTRUMENT, WHERE AUTHENTICITY IS ASSESSED .................................... 60 FIGURE 10 MEANS OF AE PITCH, BY ACCENT TYPE •.............................................................................................. 68 FIGURE 11 MEANS OF AE DURATION, BY ACCENT TYPE AND VOWEL ................................................................. 69 FIGURE 12 DIFFERENCE OF MEAN DURATION BETWEEN IMITATIONS AND REGULAR VOiCE ........................ 70 FIGURE 13 MEANS OF AE DURATION, BY ACCENT TYPE ....................................................................................... 72 FIGURE 14 MEANS OFAE DURATION, BY VOWEL TYPE ........................................................................................ 73 FIGURE 15 MEANS OF AE DURATION, BY ACCENT TYPE AND VOWEL TYPE ....................................................... 74 FIGURE 16 MEAN DURATIONAL DIFFERENCE IN LENGTH BETWEEN AE MONOPHTHONGS AND DiPHTHONGS ....................................................................................................................................................... 75 FIGURE 17 MEANS OF SPEECH RATE, BY ACCENT TYPE ......................................................................................... 76 FIGURE 18 MEANS OF AE F1 FREQUENCY, BY ACCENT TYPE •............................................................................. 78 FIGURE 19 MEANS OF AE F1 FREQUENCY, BY ACCENT TYPE AND LANGUAGE• ................................................. 79 FIGURE 20 MEANS OF AE F1 FREQUENCY, BY ACCENT TYPE AND VOWEL •....................................................... 80 FIGURE 21 DIFFERENCE OF MEAN Fl BETWEEN IMITATIONS AND REGULAR GUISE ...................................... 81 FIGURE 22 MEANS OF AE F2 FREQUENCY, BY ACCENT TYPE •............................................................................. 83 FIGURE 23 MEANS OF AE F2 FREQUENCY, BY ACCENT TYPE AND VOWEL •....................................................... 84 FIGURE 24 DIFFERENCE OF MEAN F2 BETWEEN IMITATIONS AND REGULAR VOiCE ...................................... 85 FIGURE 25 MEANS OF AE F2 FREQUENCY, BY ACCENT TYPE AND LANGUAGE• ................................................. 86 FIGURE 26 MEANS OF AE F2 FREQUENCY, BY VOWEL FRONTNESS AND ACCENT TYPE ................................... 88 FIGURE 27 DIFFERENCE OF MEAN F2 OF VOWEL TYPES BETWEEN IMITATIONS AND REGULAR VOICE ...... 89 FIGURE 28 MEANS OF AE F2 FREQUENCY, BY VOWEL FRONTNESS AND LANGUAGE •...................................... 90 FIGURE 29 NORMALIZED VOWEL SPACE WITH MEANS OF AE SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE .......................... 91 FIGURE 30 MEANS OF NNAE DURATION, BY VOWEL TYPE .................................................................................. 95 FIGURE 31 MEANS OF NNAE DURATION, BY VOWEL TYPE AND LANGUAGE. .................................................... 96 FIGURE 32 NORMALIZED VOWEL SPACE WITH MEANS OF NNAE SPEAKERS, BY LANGUAGE •....................... 98 FIGURE 33 MEAN PITCH OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE •......................................................................... 100 FIGURE 34 MEANS DURATION OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE •............................................................... 101 FIGURE 35 MEAN SPEECH RATE OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE ............................................................. 101 FIGURE 36 MEAN DURATION OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY VOWEL TYPE AND ACCENT TYPE .................................. 103 FIGURE 37 MEAN F1 OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE ................................................................................ 104 FIGURE 38 MEAN F1 OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE AND LANGUAGE •.................................................. 105 FIGURE 39 MEAN F2 OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE ................................................................................ 106 FIGURE 40 MEAN F2 OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE AND LANGUAGE •.................................................. 107 FIGURE 41 NORMALIZED VOWEL SPACE WITH NUCLEI MEANS OF ALL SPEAKERS, BY ACCENT TYPE •....... 108