Image Pattern Recognition Image Pattern Recognition Fundamentals and Applications L. Koteswara Rao Md. Zia Ur Rahman P. Rohini First edition published 2022 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2022 L. Koteswara Rao, Md. Zia Ur Rahman and P. Rohini CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. 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ISBN: 978-0-367-64216-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-64224-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-12351-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003123514 Typeset in Times by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive) Dedication All Teachers & Students Contents Preface .....................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................xv Authors. ..................................................................................................................xvii Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1 1.1 Data Retrieval ..............................................................................1 1.2 Content-Based Image Retrieval System ......................................1 1.2.1 Image Databases ..............................................................2 1.2.2 Extraction of Features and the Creation of Feature Database ...........................................................................3 1.2.3 Query Image .....................................................................4 1.2.4 Image Matching and Indexing .........................................4 1.2.5 Similarity Distance Measures ..........................................5 1.2.6 Relevance Feedback .........................................................6 1.2.7 Performance Measures .....................................................6 1.3 Organization of the Book ............................................................7 Chapter 2 Features Used for Image Retrieval Systems .........................................9 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................9 2.2 Color Features .............................................................................9 2.3 Texture Features ........................................................................11 2.4 Local Features ...........................................................................13 2.5 Shape Features ..........................................................................14 2.6 Multiple Features ......................................................................14 2.7 Problem Statement ....................................................................22 2.8 Methodology .............................................................................23 Chapter 3 Improved Directional Local Extrema Patterns ...................................25 3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................25 3.2 Local Patterns ............................................................................25 3.2.1 Local Binary Patterns .....................................................25 3.2.2 Block-Based Local Binary Patterns ...............................26 3.2.3 Center-Symmetric Local Binary Patterns ......................26 3.2.4 Local Directional Pattern ...............................................26 3.3 Directional Local Extrema Patterns ..........................................27 3.4 Improved Directional Local Extrema Patterns ..........................27 3.4.1 Combination of Color and DLEP ..................................27 vii viii Contents 3.4.2 Combination of DLEP and Gabor Features ...................32 3.5 Conclusion.................................................................................36 Solved Problems .................................................................................36 Histogram ...........................................................................................42 Exercises .............................................................................................42 Chapter 4 Local Quantized Extrema Patterns .....................................................45 4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................45 4.1.1 Local Quantized Patterns ...............................................45 4.2 Local Quantized Extrema Patterns ............................................45 4.2.1 Proposed Image Retrieval System .................................47 4.3 Experimental Results and Discussion .......................................49 4.3.1 Corel-1k Database ..........................................................49 4.3.2 Corel-5k Database ..........................................................51 4.3.3 MIT VisTex Database .....................................................56 4.4 Conclusion.................................................................................60 Solved Problems .................................................................................61 Exercises .............................................................................................64 Chapter 5 Local Color Oppugnant Quantized Extrema Patterns ........................65 5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................65 5.2 Local Color Oppugnant Quantized Extrema Patterns ...............65 5.2.1 Proposed Image Retrieval System .................................67 5.3 Experimental Results and Discussion .......................................69 5.3.1 Corel-1k Database ..........................................................69 5.3.2 Corel-5k Database ..........................................................69 5.3.3 Corel-10k Database ........................................................74 5.3.4 ImageNet-25k Database .................................................75 5.4 Conclusion.................................................................................81 Solved Problems .................................................................................81 Exercises .............................................................................................83 Chapter 6 Local Mesh Quantized Extrema Patterns ...........................................87 6.1 Introduction ...............................................................................87 6.2 Local Mesh Quantized Extrema Patterns ..................................87 6.2.1 Proposed Image Retrieval System .................................88 6.3 Experimental Results and Discussion .......................................90 6.3.1 MIT VisTex Database .....................................................90 6.3.2 Corel-1k .........................................................................90 6.4 Conclusion.................................................................................94 Solved Problems .................................................................................94 Exercises .............................................................................................96 Contents ix Chapter 7 Local Patterns for Feature Extraction .................................................99 7.1 Quantized Neighborhood Local Intensity Extrema Patterns for Image Retrieval ......................................................99 7.1.1 Introduction ....................................................................99 7.1.2 Major Advantages Over Other Methods ......................102 7.1.3 Framework of the Proposed Retrieval System .............102 7.1.4 Image Similarity Measurement ....................................103 7.1.5 Experimental Results and Discussion ..........................104 7.1.5.1 Database: 1 ....................................................105 7.1.5.2 Database: 2 ....................................................105 7.1.5.3 Database: 3 ....................................................106 7.1.5.4 Database: 4 ....................................................106 7.1.6 Conclusion ...................................................................109 7.2 Magnitude Directional Local Extrema Patterns ......................109 7.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................109 7.2.1.1 Our Contribution ............................................109 7.2.1.2 Review of Related Work ................................110 7.2.2 Different Types of Local Patterns ................................110 7.2.2.1 Local Binary Pattern ......................................110 7.2.2.2 Local Directional Pattern ...............................110 7.2.2.3 Directional Local Extrema Patterns ...............110 7.2.2.4 Magnitude Directional Local Extrema Patterns ............................................112 7.2.3 The Proposed CMDLEP System .................................114 7.2.4 Experimental Results ...................................................114 7.2.5 Conclusion ...................................................................115 7.3 Combination of CDLEP and Gabor Features..........................116 7.3.1 Introduction ..................................................................116 7.3.1.1 Contribution ...................................................116 7.3.1.2 Related Work .................................................116 7.3.2 Gabor Feature ...............................................................116 7.3.3 Proposed Gabor CDLEP System .................................118 7.3.4 Experimental Results ...................................................118 7.3.5 Conclusion ...................................................................119 7.4 LEMP: A Robust Image Feature Descriptor for Retrieval Applications ............................................................................119 7.4.1 Introduction ..................................................................119 7.4.2 Relevant Work ..............................................................121 7.4.2.1 Prime Contributions .......................................121 7.4.3 Related Local Patterns .................................................121 7.4.3.1 Local Binary Patterns ....................................121 7.4.3.2 Line Edge Binary Patterns .............................122 7.4.3.3 Line Edge Magnitude Patterns ......................123