I g b o i n t h e At l A n t I c W o r l d I g b o i n t h e At l A n t I c W o r l d african origins and diasporic destinations edited by Toyin Falola and Raphael Chijioke Njoku IndIana UnIversIty Press Bloomington & Indianapolis This book is a publication of Manufactured in the United States of America Indiana University Press Office of Scholarly Publishing Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Herman B Wells Library 350 1320 East 10th Street Names: Falola, Toyin, editor. | Njoku, Raphael Bloomington, Indiana 47405 USA Chijioke, editor. Title: Igbo in the Atlantic world : African origins iupress.indiana.edu and diasporic destinations / edited by Toyin Falola and Raphael Chijioke Njoku. © 2016 by Indiana University Press Description: Bloomington : Indiana University All rights reserved Press, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. No part of this book may be reproduced or Identifiers: LCCN 2016024865 (print) | LCCN utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or 2016026274 (ebook) | ISBN 9780253022455 mechanical, including photocopying and recording, (cl : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780253022578 (e-book) or by any information storage and retrieval system, Subjects: LCSH: Igbo (African people)—Social without permission in writing from the publisher. life and customs. | Igbo (African people)— The Association of American University Presses’ Ethnic identity. | Igbo diaspora. | Igbo (African Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only people)—United States. | Igbo (African people)— exception to this prohibition. West Indies. Classification: LCC DT515.45.I33 I4235 2016 The paper used in this publication meets the (print) | LCC DT515.45.I33 (ebook) | DDC minimum requirements of the American National 305.896332—dc23 Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI /2016024865 Z39.48-1992. 1 2 3 4 5 21 20 19 18 17 16 To the memory of Professors Tekena Tamuno, Adiele Afigbo, Jacob Ade Ajayi, and Emmanuel Ayandele Contents LIST OF Abbreviations ix 6. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Preface and from the Bight of Biafra: Acknowledgments xi An Overview 82 Kenneth Morgan 1. Introduction 1 7. The Igbo and African Backgrounds Raphael Chijioke Njoku and Toyin Falola of the Slave Cargo of the Henrietta Marie 99 Part I John Thornton Igbo Institutions and Customs as Baseline 8. “A Great Many Boys and Girls”: 2. The Kingless People: The Speech Igbo Youth in the British Slave Act as Shield and Sword 17 Trade, 1700–1808 112 Hannah Chukwu Audra A. Diptee 3. Igbo Goddesses and the Priests 9. Becoming African: Igbo Slaves and and Male Priestesses Who Social Reordering in Nineteenth- Serve Them 28 Century Niger Delta 123 Nwando Achebe Raphael Chijioke Njoku 4. Gender Relations in Nineteenth- 10. The Clustering of Igbo in the and Early Twentieth-Century Americas: Where, When, Igbo Society 46 How, and Why? 135 Gloria Chuku Gwendolyn Midlo Hall Part II 11. The Demography of the Bight of Biafra Slave Trade, The Igbo in the African Diaspora: ca. 1650–1850 147 The Mechanics and Patterns of Migrations, Paul E. Lovejoy Settlements, and Demographics 5. The Aro and the Trade of 12. The Igbo Diaspora in the Era the Bight 71 of the Slave Trade 156 A. E. Afigbo Douglas B. Chambers viii Contents Part III 18. The Afro-Caribbean Diaspora in Reverse and Its Implications for Cultural Crosscurrents: the Development of Christianity Dimensions of the Igbo Experience and Education in Igboland, in the Atlantic World Southeastern Nigeria, 1895–1925 253 13. The Igbo Diaspora in the Atlantic Waibinte E. Wariboko World: African Origins and New World Formations 173 19. The Making of Igbo Ethnicity Chima J. Korieh in the Nigerian Setting: Colonialism, Identity, and the 14. Olaudah Equiano and the Politics of Difference 265 Forging of an Igbo Identity 188 Raphael Chijioke Njoku Vincent Carretta 20. Ethnicity and the Contemporary 15. Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Igbo Artist: Shifting Igbo Identities Vassa: What’s in a Name? 199 in the Post–Civil War Nigerian Art World 285 Paul E. Lovejoy Sylvester Okwunodu Ogbechie 16. Archibald Monteath: Imperial Pawn and Individual Agent 218 21. O. SO. NDU: Patterns of the Igbo Quest for Jesus Power 299 Maureen Warner-Lewis Ogbu U. Kalu 17. Igbo Influences on Masquerading Selected Bibliography 317 and Drum-Dances in the Caribbean 228 List of Contributors 345 Robert W. Nicholls Index 351 AbbrevIAtIons AG Action Group NCNC National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon BBCA Benue Basin Cultural Area NDCA Niger Delta Cultural Area CCN Christian Council of Nigeria NDP National Democratic Party CMS Church Missionary Society NIP National Independent Party COR Council of Rivers movement for a Calabar-Ogoja-River statehood NPC Northern People’s Congress CRCA Cross River Cultural Area NYM Nigerian Youth Movement ICA Igbo Cultural Area SPILC Society for Promoting of Igbo Language and Culture LTC Lagos Town Council UNCA Lower Niger Cultural Area NCAST Nigerian College of Aviation and Technology UNN University of Nigeria, Nsukka