BBYYUU FFaammiillyy HHiissttoorriiaann Volume 4 Article 5 9-1-2005 IIddeennttiiffyyiinngg AAnncceessttrraall HHaauunnttss Mary B. Ruvane Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/byufamilyhistorian RReeccoommmmeennddeedd CCiittaattiioonn The BYU Family Historian, Vol. 4 (Fall 2005) p.33-56 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in BYU Family Historian by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. I A H : DENTIFYING NCESTRAL AUNTS FAMILY HISTORY, GIS, AND INFORMATION NEEDS MARY B. RUVANE Introduction: Mapping Family History Imagine the possibility of an online interactive map as an interface, with symbols indicating the location of events in each person’s life, such as the place of birth, marriage, offspring, migration routes, death, and burial site. Add to that links to family photographs, audiovisual material, biographies, and information on the world events that shaped their lives. This is a realistic goal, as evidenced by historians utilizing Geographic Information Systems (GISs) for similar pursuits in picturing the past. Other initiatives demonstrate alternate methods of implementing interactive mapping of chronological events, some incorporating multimedia (Southall & White, 1998; Zerneke, 2003). The purpose of this paper is to understand the information needs and the process undertaken by family historians, or genealogists, in their quest to build a GIS database for visualizing ancestral haunts. Do online sources provide the geographic information necessary, or are traditional institutions, such as archives and government records offices, the sole keepers of material needed for validating the physical context of past events? What environmental barriers, such as time and cost, exist in locating suitable information? What accessibility and credibility factors are encountered when using online or traditional information sources? It is expected that this research will demonstrate the limitations of both online and traditional research material, indicating an opportunity to build bridges aimed at reducing unnecessary detours in the search for family history. The first part of this paper provides an overview of the information necessary for building a digital map of past places and related events. It discusses traditional access to relevant material versus that offered by online databases and individual contributors. The search for location evidence is not limited to genealogists; in fact, historians and geographers have similar needs as cited in the literature. A model is presented illustrating the common information needs of these groups and is related to previously published models of information theory and behavior. The remaining half of this paper describes a preliminary case study completed to identify and evaluate the relevance of information found to map location history, using both traditional and online sources. The study objective was to trace one individual’s lineage back to a known relative living in the American colony of Virginia around the 1700s. Relevance ratings were assigned to each source and are presented along with the findings and unresolved information gaps. Although this study was limited to a small sample, it points to future research opportunities. Background: Sources for Mapping Family History Locating historical digital map data is the greatest obstacle shared by historians interested in applying GIS technology to illustrate the past. While digital map data has become plentiful in the past ten years, and includes feature files representing boundaries (e.g., country, state, city, town), locations of interest (e.g., cities, towns, cultural heritage sites), and other physical characteristics (e.g., rivers, roads, mountains), the data available typically represents current geographical conditions. Historical digital map data is usually nonexistent, or if available it is not in the format, time period, or detail required. Many academic and scholarly organizations are working on projects to address this dearth of GIS material for historians (CSISS, 2003; Long, 33 1998), and in time family historians may benefit from these efforts, as well as become instrumental in assisting with future collaborations. Currently, building a spatial database from scratch is the only solution to enable the mapping of historical locations in a GIS. A spatial database links complex geographic coordinates to the attributes that describe each feature. Attributes in a family history spatial database would include place names and the events, or points of interest, associated with each location, such as a birth, place of residence, marriage or death. Some of the most challenging historical coordinates to locate include long-ago state, county, and city boundary divisions, which shifted frequently during the colonial period. To ensure an event is visualized in context with its time period, a variety of administrative units ideally should be included in a family historian’s spatial database. To be successful in tracing an individual’s lineage and in pinpointing locations for mapping, a family historian needs access to a variety of materials administered by such groups as genealogical societies, individual families, libraries, archives, and government records offices. In the brick-and- mortar world, these groups are often physically separated and typically work independently of each other. A presence on the Internet offers them an opportunity to break from this traditional model and work toward a common goal. The traditional research method for uncovering historical information about an individual involves physically inspecting primary and secondary resources maintained in libraries, archives1 and government2 records offices, often requiring out-of-state travel to visit numerous collections. In the early stages of the search for information, genealogical publications and existing family histories are invaluable starting points for locating material likely to pertain to an individual, but establishing authenticity requires finding birth certificates, marriage certificates, military records, deeds, last wills and testaments, and other authoritative documentation (Greenwood, 2000). It is these latter resources that provide credibility and identify historic locales, yet they are the items most difficult to find in a timely and affordable manner using traditional methods. The online research method, which involves the use of content and tools provided primarily by genealogical and digital library Web sites, holds promise for streamlining the traditional procedure. Genealogical sites are often commercial ventures (Ancestry.com, 2003), which encourage registered, paying members to create family trees for sharing with members and nonmembers alike. Online family trees are a good place to start, but the user contributions are far from ideal; duplicate and incomplete records are unmonitored, contradictions are common, biographical material is scarce, and credible sources are rarely cited to resolve any discrepancies. An added disincentive is the commercial nature of many genealogy sites, where a paid membership is necessary to access proprietary databases of dubious worth and coverage. Even the few genealogical sites that represent themselves as not-for-profit (GenWeb, 2003; LDS, 2003) in the end ultimately point you in the direction of these same fee-based commercial sources. Online digital libraries, on the other hand, are typically maintained by nonprofit organizations such as archives, libraries, and government records institutions (KY, 2003; VA, 2003). The online content, presented and physically maintained by these authoritative institutions, ideally could resolve ambiguities found on genealogical Web sites by providing access to highly coveted images of original documents. Regrettably, at present, their coverage and areas of interest are diverse and often incomplete for satisfying a family historian’s research needs. 1 Archives for this research study include those maintained by libraries, museums, families, and local historical societies. 2 Government records offices refers to federal, state, and local authority establishments charged with maintaining public records for use by the general public. 34 In either research approach, once dates and places of events surrounding an individual have been identified, the next challenge is in preparing the data for use in a GIS. This entails interpreting and converting the locations identified into present-day geographical coordinates for display by a GIS. One tool suited for finding coordinates is a gazetteer, a type of geographical dictionary that indexes place names accompanied by descriptions and location information, including the necessary longitude and latitude information (GNIS, 2003; 2003; US Gazetteer, 2003). Not all gazetteers document the provenance of a place name, adding to the challenge of verifying past versus present-day locations. For example, in the 1600s the town of Harrod’s Creek was in Virginia, but by the mid-1700s that same town had been incorporated into the newly formed state of Kentucky. In other instances town names were changed to suit the preferences of political interests of the time. Problem Statement: Information Sources The greatest benefit of the Internet is its ability to build bridges seamlessly across multiple resources, yet this advantage appears to be underutilized by many Web sites, including those provided by genealogical sites and digital libraries. While genealogy sites have a strong and growing user base, indicating a robust interest in family history research (Quinn, 1991; Ridge, 2000), they lack standardization, authentication, adequate search filters, and access to mapping tools, leaving room for improvement. Digital libraries, on the other hand, have a reputation and the expertise for presenting suitable resources, which could compliment this growing demand. Unfortunately, the majority of emerging online tools are merely duplicates of the traditional research model, each organization focusing on a small piece of a larger puzzle with cursory, if any, consideration to each other’s complimentary areas of expertise. Literature Review Maps: A Common Tool for Geographers, Historians, and Genealogists Geographers, as well many historians, have traditionally relied on maps to place into context their findings and aid in the visualization of chronological events. Paper maps have been a primary source for illustrating such changes over time (Sauer, 1940). With advances in technology, the use of GISs has emerged as a viable tool for accomplishing this task. For example, Knowles’s (2002) compilation of essays demonstrates how geography and GISs are being used in real-life projects and suggests this method “contribute[s] a good deal to historical research.” Rumsey and Williams (2002) echo this belief in their opening chapter by giving an overview of the potential GISs offer to historical researchers. The importance that geography plays in historical research is evidenced by the commission of Gregory (2002), a geographer, by the History Data Service to develop a practical guide for historians on how to use GIS in their research. There are also projects utilizing various forms of interactive mapping (Fitch & Ruggles, 2003) for the display of chronological events relative to geographical locations, and others incorporating multimedia, using maps to communicate the unfolding of historical events (Hoppe, 2003; Mohr & Nicols, 1997). For the genealogist, maps are a “must” according to Greenwood (2000). They help in visualizing the larger relationships between cities, towns, and counties in respect to their proximity to ancestral habitats. This information can suggest additional places to search for material related to past relations, since records may be located in different jurisdictions, “especially if the place your ancestors lived happened to lie near a boundary line” (Greenwood, 2000). Helmbold (1976) corroborates the importance of maps in genealogical research, particularly topographic maps for 35 understanding existing transportation routes of the time period and the physical barriers, such as mountain passes that would have limited interaction between communities. For a particular locality, detailed maps are extremely valuable, such as city street maps and land ownership maps. Information-Seeking Behavior of Historians Case (1991) synthesized the findings of several studies related to “what historians say they do” when researching a project. Although each study used different terminology, they appear to agree that historians typically focus on research related to either a particular time, a particular subject, or a particular place. Case (1991) further summarized these studies, illustrating that each fell into one of three types of research focus: “chronological (divisions by centuries, decades, periods, eras, and specific range of years), topical (persons, events, and themes), and [or] geographical (continents, regions, countries, states, provinces, cities, and so on (pp. 65–6).” Case (p. 73) also noted that scholarly historians seek primary resources in support of their research, yet libraries and historians hold different views as to what constitutes a primary resource: what is secondary and tertiary to the scholar is primary to the librarian…the books, bibliographic databases, and reference tools that we [libraries]…provide are not the source materials that scholars most often seek…original evidence is especially important to historians, who make a strong distinction between primary and secondary material. For the historian, the primary material is to be found in the archives. Numerous studies have focused on the tasks historians engage in when searching for historical material (Delgadillo & Lynch, 1999; Jones, Chapman, & Woods, 1972), while others have specifically assessed the use of archival material by historians (Case, 1991; Duff & Johnson, 2002). Holdsworth’s (2003) research indicates that historical geographers have comparable information needs and utilize similar search strategies. A common thread echoed in these studies is the task-intensive nature of the traditional “hunt” for historical information and the barriers encountered such as cost, physical location, credibility, and the limitations of search tools or archival finding aids. A Branch of History: Genealogy and Family History Greenwood (2000, pp. 1-2, 8-9) defines genealogy as “that branch of history which involves a scientific study for the determination of family relationships…” Though a branch of history, genealogy is a subject which you cannot approach in the same way you would approach most other branches. In genealogy you cannot make a brief general summary of a historical period— but must consider the details of each ancestral problem individually and thoroughly…This is not done by copying but rather by research.” He further clarifies his definition as only applicable “to genealogy when it is properly practiced. However, as practiced by many it falls short in some respects. We can truthfully say that genealogy should be a science…but the methods of some tend to lower it to the level of a mere pastime built upon false premises…So many compiled genealogical records lack credibility and so many printed family histories and genealogies are pure tripe…” Like Greenwood, Null (1985) groups genealogists into two types, the hobbyist versus the scientific researcher. The former he refers to as a genealogist, the latter as a family historian. In Null’s view genealogists are less rigorous in their research and tend to record dubiously documented basic facts such as births, marriages, and deaths of direct descendants in their rush to construct a family tree. Family historians, on the other hand, seek to verify meticulously not 36 only these basic facts, but also extended relationships, along with locating contextual material such as biographical sketches and historical events that define the time period. The information-seeking behavior of the more rigorous family historian mirrors that of the professional historian (Null, 1985). While family historians focus on both topical research (related to a particular person or family) and chronological (covering many generations), they rely on the same resources and behave in the same manner as other historians when searching for material relevant to their area of study. Family historians typically begin their query employing a surname search, then they utilized the places, dates, and events uncovered as filters in subsequent searches to bolster their findings. Greenwood (2000, p. 11) substantiates that history and genealogical research are intertwined. “Genealogy and history (religious, economic, social and political) cannot be separated. Men cannot be dissociated from the times and places in which they lived and still be understood. It is impossible to recognize the full extent of research possibilities if you are not aware of the background from which your ancestors came.” He explains that knowledge of history provides the clues needed for determining the types of records that existed, whether they survived, and which institutions currently maintain the documents still in existence. The interest in genealogy research is steeped in tradition and has continued to grow steadily (Kemp, 1997; Null, 1985). It is clear the Internet is playing a role in this phenomenon (Howells, 1999; Tedeschi, 2002) as evidenced by projects aimed at building digital indexes focused on ancestral research (Austen et al., 2003; “Business Wire,” 2002; Goeken, Nguyen, Ruggles, & Sargent, 2003; Oka & LaGuardia, 2002). The demand for improved access to these resources appears to be going unnoticed by many of the academic library and archive communities holding relevant material. They frequently view family research as a mere hobby, worth limited attention (Kniffel, 1993; Manley, 1996; Null, 1985). Others in the field point to the research value and benefits of catering to this substantial audience (Boyns, 1999; Cadell, 2002; Kemp, 1999b; Null, 1985; Quinn, 1991). In fact, family history research offers many benefits such as the ability to document a family’s medical history (Greene, 2003) or build upon knowledge in the field of social sciences (Brunet & Bideau, 2000; Fitch & Ruggles, 2003; Null, 1985). One alarming trend indicates that certain libraries are granting exclusive rights to commercial ventures to digitize ancestral public records. Once digitized, these electronic records are only accessible to paying members (Nakada, 2001). It seems that the tables should be turned and these commercial ventures should be paying libraries for the privilege to publish these holdings, and be required to adopt a standardized format to ensure interoperability with ongoing and future digitizing initiatives. This study is interested in genealogy as a scientific study of family relations, as defined by Greenwood (2000) and by Null’s (1985) synonymous description of a family historian. Both terms, genealogist and family historian, are used throughout this paper and should be construed as meaning those researchers intent on seeking the highest level of authentic material available in their pursuit to document and map the location of family events. Although the information seeking process and sources used to map ancestral place locations is the focus of this study, each location is inextricably tied to the events that occurred in a family member’s life, such as the place of birth, marriage, or death. It is the knowledge concerning these events that adds meaning to the locations that the researcher ultimately wishes to map. The information needs of the genealogist entail identifying people and the events, places, and dates that reflect their lives. Once this data is gathered, geographic coordinates can be construed to enable mapping of ancestral habitats for display in a GIS. 37 Problem Defined: Information Needs Model & Definitions To begin a search, historians typically start by looking for information related to a known item, as substantiated in Duff and Johnson’s (2002) research. They cite an early study that contends 90 percent of archive researchers can associate their information needs to a person’s name or an organization. They also established that search terms such as ‘date, place, and from, were used almost as frequently’ (p. 476). These findings agree with several other studies that have identified persons, places, events and dates as key search terms used by historians and genealogists alike (Greenwood, 2000; Helmbold, 1976). Table 1: Conceptual Model of Genealogical Information Needs The conceptual model presented in Table 1 puts into context the information needs of a family historian intent on mapping locations inhabited by their ancestors,. The process starts by identifying one person in the lineage. The objective is to verify events in that individual’s life, such as birth or marriage, by documenting the date and specific place of each occasion, followed by establishing relationships to other persons. The model defines a circular pattern that continues until there are no more associations to explore, or the information trail disappears. For each step in the procedure, primary documents, as defined by Case (1991) earlier, should be located to verify each event. If official documents do not exist, multiple sources must be consulted to substantiate an event, its date, and its place, thereby serving as a surrogate in lieu of primary documentation. Information Need: Person The search for ancestors begins with locating information related to one person in the family lineage. A surname (last name) search is a good place to start and can be done online or in published indexes. Unless the surname is very rare, such as Zubl (LDS, 2003), finding the right person can be difficult, especially if family records no longer exist to provide clues about unique events in that individual’s life, such as a birth date or birthplace. It is especially challenging when working with a common surname such as Smith, or dealing with variant spellings of family surnames such as Brinckerhoff or Brinkerhof. Variants occurred frequently for numerous reasons. For example, some family surnames were anglicized upon arrival in the American colonies, either for personal reasons or due to recording errors. Misspellings were also common due to low literacy levels and variations in native language, leading to the apparent legal acceptance of phonetically equivalent spellings. To narrow the initial surname search the use of additional qualifiers, such as a person’s first or middle name, spousal name, year of birth or state of residence may help. Without some background details, focusing the hunt can be quite difficult and time consuming. Ideally one ought to start by interviewing family members, recording both oral recollections and examining 38 family archived keepsakes, such as old letters, news clippings, and photo albums, to identify unique facts related to past generations. From there research should focus on the most current generation and proceed backward to establish links sequentially to each preceding generation. With background information providing the benchmarks, surname indexes, both online and traditional, become useful tools for identifying likely relations and eliminating those with incompatible event characteristics, such as an incorrect birth date or place. Information Need: Events Primary events in a person’s life include birth, marriage, and death. Additional events may include the schools attended, residences occupied, careers, and membership affiliations, including professional organizations, social clubs, or churches. Events can represent time periods, such as the Great Depression, or military actions, such as the Civil War. These latter attributes are ideally suited for visualizing the historical influences surrounding each generation. The goal of this study was to locate primary documents, or the equivalent, for each individual along the branch of a particular family tree (e.g., birth certificate, marriage certificate(s) and death certificate), if available. For relatives that lived prior to the 1800s, locating proof of these three events will rarely be easy. Many states had not implemented mandatory recording of vital records until the early 1800s or later. Locating church records or digging deeper into family archives may be the only option. It is the verification of these key events that provides the crucial evidence needed and clues for continuing with the information seeking process. Information Need: Dates In order to map events for chronological display in a GIS, a date must be linked to each event and the place it occurred. Dates also add another level of confirmation in documenting a person’s familial relationship; for example, it would be unlikely that a person born in 1880 was the parent of someone born in 1885. Dates can be explicit, such as a birth date; a range of time, such as the years a particular school was attended; or continuous, such as from a certain date to the present. Contradictions may exist between multiple information sources, and each case should be documented for later analysis and resolution. For relatives living in the year 1752, the Gregorian Calendar replaced the use of the Julian Calendar in the British American colonies that year, resulting in an adjustment of eleven days. Helmbold (1976, p. 37) warns that because of differing customs among the settlers, the new year began on 25 March or on 1 January. When the calendar was changed, the Parliament also established 1 January 1752 as the legal New Year’s Day. Birthdays of people then had to be expressed as Old Style or New Style. For example, a date would be written as 14 February 1727/8. This means that the event took place in 1727 if the year was thought to begin on 25 March but the birth date was in 1728 if the year was thought to begin on 1 January. Since the 25 March date is the turning point, only dates from 1 January to 24 March have to be indicated in the above way. Information Need: Places The most important information required to enable GIS mapping is knowledge of the place, or location, where an event occurred. There are several levels of location precision that need to be considered, not only in the context of a particular time period but in terms of scale. Scale 39 determines the level of detail available for mapping. For example, while identifying the state and county an ancestor inhabited is essential, it is even more desirable to map locations at the city or town level, as well to identify land holding and pinpoint actual street addresses. Once a place name and its attributes have been identified, the geographic coordinates can be determined. These coordinates are what enable a GIS to display symbols representing the physical location of recorded events on a map. For example, places may include symbols of countries, regions, states, cities, towns, landmarks, natural features, or buildings. The temporal nature of places requires that additional dates and coordinates be defined each time the physical traits, jurisdictional boundaries, or name of a place changes. Capturing these adjustments puts into context the before, after, and present-day characteristics of a location. Information Need: Relationships Relations typically involve identifying an individual’s familial associations with a spouse or spouses, siblings, children, and parents. Secondary relations of interest include people with whom an individual socialized outside of their immediate family circle such as business partners, neighbors, and organizations. Knowledge of relationships is important not only in defining a family unit, but also as an aid in identifying subsequent ancestral connections, or for eliminating those not fitting the profile. After gathering sufficient information about a particular individual, the family historian’s information-seeking process begins again by researching the next individual of interest, which may have been identified as a relation to the last person searched or someone else along the family tree. Multiple Resources: Online or Traditional Multiple resources are consulted in the quest to document each ancestor and the events, dates, places, and relations that shaped their lives. Traditional and online resources include, but are not limited to, genealogical societies, archives, government records offices, libraries, family records, newspapers, cemeteries, and published biographies. Information concerning the same event may be recorded in multiple resources and each should be cited to substantiate the date and place, or point out discrepancies. It is especially important to consult several sources to establish undocumented events. For this study, family archives provided the initial information needed to begin a search for ancestors along one branch of a family tree. Thereafter, the goal was to utilize primarily online resources, beginning with a search for matching surnames. Names that included matching characteristics to the family records, such as the correct state of birth or date of marriage, were compared for relevancy. Those not containing distinguishing details or matching facts were eliminated. From here it was possible to establish links to previous generations and fill in event details missing from the family archives. Traditional brick-and-mortar establishments, that were geographically accessible, were later consulted in an attempt to substantiate the online findings. Spatial Database Throughout the information-seeking process, a family historian needs to record details and document sources related to the persons and events being researched. Traditionally, genealogists have used standardized paper forms for collecting much of this data (see “Research Guidance- Family Group Record” link: LDS, 2003). In the online method, commercial software programs employ modified versions of these forms to aid in the process (Hirsch, 2002). While both traditional and online data collection tools are plentiful, none appear to be designed for recording 40 geographical coordinate (e.g., longitude and latitude) information needed for use within a GIS. Thus, facilitating GIS mapping requires the creation of a spatial database capable of linking event attributes to geographic coordinates for display in a digital map. Any number of database software packages can be employed for building a spatial database, such as Microsoft’s Excel, Access, or MySQL. Another method worth considering is the use of extensible markup language (XML) as suggested by Lu and Scaramuzza (2003). While the building of a spatial database is not the subject of this study, it has been addressed here to highlight the additional barrier to successfully mapping ancestral haunts. Not only does the family historian need to find and carefully document location information required for mapping, they often need to transcribe their findings into a compatible format for use in a spatial database. This second step is a time-consuming duplication of efforts and could be avoided if electronic family group records were designed to record location data automatically into an underlying spatial database. Information Theory & Models of Information Behavior In the fields of Communication and Information Science, the term information may be defined as: “The decrease in uncertainty of a receiver…in going from the before state to the after state. It is usually measured in bits per second…” (Schneider, 1999). This definition is attributable to Shannon’s (1948) development of a mathematical formula known as Information Theory, which is aptly described in The Meaning of Information (Bell Labs, 2003): Information Theory regards information as only those symbols that are uncertain to the receiver. For years, people have sent telegraph messages, leaving out non-essential words such as “a” and “the.” In the same vein, predictable symbols can be left out, like in the sentence, “only infrmatn esentil to understandn mst b tranmitd.” Shannon made clear that uncertainty is the very commodity of communication. The amount of information, or uncertainty, output by an information source is a measure of its entropy. In turn, a source’s entropy determines the amount of bits per symbol required to encode the source’s information. Basically “The theory addresses two aspects of communication: How can we define and measure information? and What is the maximum information that can be sent through a communications channel? (channel capacity)” (Schneider & Lewis, 2002). Several theoretical models of a person’s information needs have been developed that include Shannon’s aspect of uncertainty, although from a humanistic viewpoint. Wilson (1999) compared these models and grouped them into three categories, information behavior, information-seeking behavior, and information searching (Dervin, 1983; Ellis, 1989; Kuhlthau, 1991). Wilson contends that these models are complimentary and can be “nested” within each other, as they address a different scale within the information need process, from the macro to micro level. Wilson further recognizes that “information behaviour is a part of human communication behaviour…” although in communication studies the “strong focus [is] on the communicator and the channels of communication…” unlike information behavior studies, which focus on the information seeker (Wilson, 2000, pp. 263–64). This study intends to evaluate the quality of resources that aid in reducing uncertainty related to the information needs of the family historian intent on mapping ancestral haunts. Of particular interest are two intervening (or environmental) barriers that Wilson (1997, pp. 559–61; 1999) defines in his model as economic variables and source characteristics. Economic variables are described as direct costs and the value of time, while source characteristics include accessibility, 41