THE AUTONOMOUS JOURNEY: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF FIRST GENERATION COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PERSIST A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY JOSHUA MILLER DR. JOHN AMBROSIO - ADVISOR BALL STATE UNIVERSITY MUNCIE, INDIANA July 2015 i THE AUTONOMOUS JOURNEY: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF FIRST GENERATION COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PERSIST A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY JOSHUA MILLER DISSERTATION ADVISOR: DR. JOHN AMBROSIO APPROVED BY: ________________________________________ ____________________ Dr. John Ambrosio, Chairperson Date ________________________________________ ____________________ Dr. Nancy Brooks, Member Date ________________________________________ ____________________ Dr. Jon Clausen, Member Date ________________________________________ ____________________ Dr. Tom McConnell, Member Date ________________________________________ ____________________ Dr. Robert Morris, Dean of Graduate School Date BALL STATE UNIVERSITY MUNCIE, INDIANA JULY 2015 ii Copyright © Joshua L. Miller 2015 All Rights Reserved iv Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my best friend and wife, Heather. Your support and inspiration throughout this long journey have allowed me to complete this meaningful project. Your unyielding support, patience, and encouragement provided me with the motivation that I needed to become the person I am today. You have been the light in the darkness, the warmth in the winter, and the sunflower of my life. I can only hope to have many years left upon the earth in which to repay your support of my dreams and your never-ending strength. Proverbs tells us that an excellent wife is more precious than jewels, and to that I say amen. You are a precious gift and I hope to honor you in all that I do. To you, I shall remain eternally grateful. v Acknowledgements The journey of writing a dissertation may include countless hours of isolation, but it is never undertaken alone. To that end, I wish to acknowledge those who shared in my journey. First, I wish to thank my loving wife for her countless sacrifices, as she indulged my desire to pursue a Ph.D. Your confidence and limitless support of my dreams are the staples that saw me through the more difficult times. Words are simply unable to capture and communicate my gratitude for your willingness to share in my journey. You have fueled my desire to become an agent of educational change and to give back to those who are unable to follow their dreams. To Dr. John Ambrosio, my committee chair and mentor, I acknowledge the countless hours of your sacrifice in reading, reviewing, guiding, and provoking me to greater accomplishment. You have profoundly influenced the person that I have become, and I am grateful. Thank you for teaching me to think more critically and to evaluate the educational foundations on which our society rests. Your confidence and trust in me, as well as your willingness to put my needs first have shaped the manor in which I will engage my students for years to come. I thank you for more than can be contained in this section. For my committee members, Dr. Nancy Brooks, Dr. Jon Clausen, Dr. Tom McConnell, it is impossible to express my gratitude for your commitment and support throughout the dissertation process. Your willingness to guide and support my aspirations reveals your service and commitment to the development of your students. I deeply appreciate and value your skills and insight that have helped to shape this study. To Austin and Jewel, although you are no longer with us, I acknowledge that this dissertation would not have been possible without your unconditional loyalty and support. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Approval Page .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Dedication .................................................................................................................................................. v Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................. vi Abstract ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ v Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Problem and Context ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................................................... 7 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................................ 8 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................................................... 9 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................................... 10 Definition of Relevant Terms ........................................................................................................................ 11 Significance ........................................................................................................................................................ 13 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................................................ 18 Assumptions ................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Delimitations .................................................................................................................................................................. 18 Limitations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Organization of the Study .............................................................................................................................. 21 Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................... 24 Academic Attrition .......................................................................................................................................... 30 Cost of Academic Attrition to the Nation ............................................................................................................. 32 Cost of Academic Attrition to the Institution ....................................................................................................... 33 Cost of Academic Attrition to the Individual ....................................................................................................... 34 Autonomy and Academic Success ................................................................................................................ 37 Visions of Autonomy ....................................................................................................................................... 38 Defining Autonomy ..................................................................................................................................................... 40 Autonomy within Democracy ................................................................................................................................... 43 A Critique of Personal Autonomy ........................................................................................................................................... 50 Autonomy Through Education ................................................................................................................................. 52 First Generation Students .............................................................................................................................. 60 First Generation Demographics ................................................................................................................................ 64 Barriers to Education ................................................................................................................................................... 67 Social and Cultural Capital ........................................................................................................................................ 68 Autonomy in Education .................................................................................................................................. 72 Learner Autonomy ........................................................................................................................................................ 73 Learner Autonomy in Higher Education ............................................................................................................................... 76 Establishing Autonomy ............................................................................................................................................... 78 Consequences of Students who Lack Autonomy ................................................................................................ 84 Academic Persistence in Higher Education ............................................................................................... 86 Theories of Student Persistence ............................................................................................................................... 87 Tinto’s Model of Institutional Departure .............................................................................................................................. 89 v Transition into Higher Education ............................................................................................................................. 95 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 98 Chapter Three: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 102 Research Paradigm ....................................................................................................................................... 102 Research Strategy: Phenomenology .......................................................................................................... 104 Proposed Research Design ........................................................................................................................... 109 Proposed Study Location ......................................................................................................................................... 109 Proposed Participants ............................................................................................................................................... 110 Participant Selection ................................................................................................................................................. 111 Method for Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 112 Data Stream – In-Depth Interviews ...................................................................................................................... 114 Interview Questions .................................................................................................................................................. 115 Interview Process ....................................................................................................................................................... 116 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 118 Holistic Reading of the Entire Text ..................................................................................................................... 119 First Line-by-Line Reading .................................................................................................................................... 119 Follow-Up Questions ................................................................................................................................................ 120 Second Line-by-Line Reading ............................................................................................................................... 120 Third Line-by-Line Reading .................................................................................................................................. 120 Subsequent Readings ................................................................................................................................................ 121 Qualitative Data Analysis Software ..................................................................................................................... 121 Quality Criteria .............................................................................................................................................. 122 Trustworthiness .......................................................................................................................................................... 122 Truth Value .................................................................................................................................................................. 124 Applicability ................................................................................................................................................................ 124 Consistency .................................................................................................................................................................. 125 Neutrality ...................................................................................................................................................................... 125 Role of the Researcher and Qualifications .............................................................................................. 126 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................................................. 127 Timeline ............................................................................................................................................................ 128 Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................... 129 LIVED EXPERIENCES OF FIRST GENERATION COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PERSIST .............................................................................................................................................. 129 Purpose ............................................................................................................................................................. 130 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................................... 130 Introduction to the Participants ................................................................................................................. 131 Anita ............................................................................................................................................................................... 133 Brianna .......................................................................................................................................................................... 133 Carline ........................................................................................................................................................................... 134 Erik ................................................................................................................................................................................. 134 James .............................................................................................................................................................................. 134 Martin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 135 Miranda ......................................................................................................................................................................... 135 The Interview Process ................................................................................................................................... 136 Phenomenological Reduction ...................................................................................................................... 139 Steps of Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 142 The Emergence of Themes ........................................................................................................................... 146 A Sense of Purpose ................................................................................................................................................... 147 vi Self-Reflection ............................................................................................................................................................ 151 Internal Locus of Control ........................................................................................................................................ 156 Resisting Conformity ................................................................................................................................................ 161 Perseverance ................................................................................................................................................................ 165 Uniqueness of Being First Generation ................................................................................................................ 171 The Phenomenological Structure of Autonomy ..................................................................................... 175 Participant Response Throughout the Study ..................................................................................................... 176 Chapter Five: Summary and Discussion ...................................................................................... 180 Study Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 180 Interpretation.................................................................................................................................................. 183 Relevance to the Literature Review........................................................................................................... 200 Implications ..................................................................................................................................................... 211 Strengths and Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 214 Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................................................... 217 Concluding Remarks..................................................................................................................................... 220 References ............................................................................................................................................ 225 APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 266 Appendix A: Participant Request ................................................................................................................. 267 Appendix B: Informed Consent Form ......................................................................................................... 268 Appendix C: Participant Semi-structured Interview Protocol .................................................................. 271 vii Chapter One: Introduction Problem and Context With the expanding rhetoric of politicians and business leaders advocating the need to increase the number of college graduates in the United States (Casey, 2011; Martinez, 2011; Schneider, 2010), more must be done to address the scourge of student attrition (Rosenbaum, 2007). Year after year eager students flock to institutions of higher learning in ever-increasing numbers (U.S. Department of Education, NCES, 2013), as dropout rates continue their unabated and voracious feeding upon the would be scholars. According to the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2014) less than 59% of first time, full-time public college and university students graduate within six years. These statistics indicate that 41% of first time, full-time students will most likely fail to achieve their desire for a college degree. However, this is simply the beginning of their sorrows. Astonishing, as it may be, the completion rate of first time, full-time students enrolled in a public institution is a meager 31% within the traditionally allotted timeframe of four years (US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, IPED, 2014). With such alarming statistics, student attrition within the world of higher education deserves further exploration. While the literature is replete with theories of persistence and retention (Braxton, 2008) that include fostering an understanding of the periods of transition (Barefoot, 2008) or emphasizing student incorporation (Tinto, 1975, 1986, & 1993), such theories do not address the autonomous actions and attitudes of students as they experience postsecondary life. There remains adequate room to explore other possible factors related to persistence and degree attainment that integrate the manner in which students direct his or her personal experiences as 1 well as the motivations that drive the action or inaction of the individual. The possible influence connecting the attitude and the ability to self-direct (Dworkin, 1988), throughout the college experience remains underexplored (Buvoltz, Powell, Solan, & Longbotham, 2008; Crede, & Niehorster, 2012) and may be useful to bolstering student persistence. Autonomy is a social construct that remains difficult to define, yet elucidates characteristics aspired to by most members of society (McAvoy, 2013; Schneewind, 2005). These characteristics often overlap with the language used to describe qualities of a successful student, which include one who exercises creativity, authenticity, and originality (Clifford, 2007; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Ryan & Deci, 1987). Of further significance beyond the academic experience, when considering the qualifications of a fully participating member of the modern democratic society, these very characteristics remain essential to its continuance (Heyneman, 2003; Thorpe, 2010). Therefore, one can speculate that serving the needs of the individual student in his or her quest of attaining a college degree, by fostering autonomous attributes, also serves the needs of society beyond the collegiate experience. Plato (trans. 1935) understood the correlation between serving the interests of the individual as well as society in the ability to comprehend one’s capacity to achieve his or her fullest potential through education. This perception is echoed through the exploration of such educational and philosophical scholars as Bruner (1996), Eisner (1985), Rawls (1999) and Raz (1986) all who emphasized a connection between achieving one’s potential and contributing to the furtherance of a democratic society. Taylor (2005) advances the idea that autonomy “celebrates creative self-authorship and encourages the development of those virtues…integrity and authenticity” (p. 602), which serve the needs of both the individual in his or her pursuit of education and society in its need for active citizenship. It has been argued that in order to 2