HUNTING AND HOUSEHOLD IN PDS SÃO SALVADOR, ACRE, BRAZIL By ERIC MINZENBERG A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2005 Copyright 2005 by Eric Minzenberg to all of my teachers ACKNOWLEDGMENTS What seemed as an eternity when I first entered Gainesville several years ago is finally coming to closure. This dissertation could not have been completed without the love, guidance, patience, and support of numerous people. First, I thank my family for their continual help throughout my graduate school journey. My mother, Jean, although she may not have always understood what I was studying (and why), provided unconditional love and emotional support. Now she is hoping that I can market this degree. My brother, Mike, was the first person who suggested I pursue the PhD. Needless to say, I took his advice. Mike also helped me think through my research questions, methodology, and data analysis, in the process making my writing clearer and more succinct than it otherwise would have been without his input. My enjoyment with finishing this dissertation was enhanced by Laura Bird who provided tenderness, comfort, and love as this process reached conclusion. I regret that my father did not live long enough for me to present him with a copy of this work. I was blessed with a talented and thoughtful supervising committee consisting of my chair, Marianne Schmink, and Michael Heckenberger, Brenda Chalfin, and Stephen Perz. I am the latest in a long line of students that Marianne Schmink has mentored throughout her distinguished career. I could not have asked for a more responsive and insightful chair that constantly pushed me to be the best student and writer that I could be. Michael Heckenberger continually provided poignant insights that helped me think of my work within the broader regional perspective of Amazonian studies. Brenda iv Chalfin’s careful observations of the theoretical aspects of my work made my analysis cleaner and stronger. I could not have begun to undertake the statistical analysis used throughout this dissertation without the guidance of Stephen Perz. Throughout my time at the University of Florida, the four members of my committee mentioned above provided countless hours of time and energy, always in a friendly and positive manner, towards improving my doctoral studies. In addition to my supervisory committee, there were several other professors that played a role in shaping my thinking. H. Russell Bernard was instrumental in helping me define my research questions and prepare a coherent research design and methodology. It is largely due to him that my research proposal achieved funding. I first garnered an appreciation for who is the “peasant”, and what he/she does from Leslie Anderson. Tom Davies, Jr., from the days of my master’s work at San Diego State University, was a strong influence in the early years of my graduate school training. I regularly traded stories and ideas concerning our work, with my colleagues Richard Wallace, Valerio Gomes, Samantha Stone, Jackie Vadjunec, and David Salisbury. Their comments and suggestions during fieldwork and on earlier drafts of this manuscript were very helpful. The Brazilian NGO, PESACRE, was very accommodating in providing logistical support in Acre. I especially thank Vangelâ Nascimento, and (Cazuza) Eduardo Borges. Their friendship helped me survive the loneliness of fieldwork in isolated areas. Research assistants, Márcia and Marinês collected data diligently and provided a smoother integration within the communities where I did fieldwork than otherwise would have been possible. I would never have been able to reach my field sites without the boat operators Jesuita and Novo. We suffered together v the arduous all-day boat trips in the cold rain and blinding sun entering and leaving PDS São Salvador. The families of José Francisco and Dora in the community of Rio Azul, and Seu Paolo and Dona Nenem in Boa Vista were gracious hosts during fieldwork. Not once did they complain that my insistent questions were a burden to them. I also thank the National Science Foundation and the Working Forests in the Tropics program at the University of Florida for funding this research project. Finally, I thank all of the families of PDS São Salvador who allowed me to intrude into their lives. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................iv LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................ix LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................x ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1 Animals and Tropical Forests.......................................................................................4 The Peasant Household.................................................................................................6 Amazonian Peasantry...................................................................................................8 Hunting and the Peasantry..........................................................................................13 Diagram of Peasant Hunting.......................................................................................20 Intra-household Hypotheses on Hunting....................................................................22 Inter-household Hypotheses on Hunting....................................................................25 Dissertation Layout.....................................................................................................26 2 THE HISTORY OF PDS SÃO SALVADOR AND THE RESEARCH SITE..........29 The History of Rubber in the Development of the State of Acre...............................32 Post - World War II Amazonian Development..........................................................36 Rubber in the Development of PDS São Salvador.....................................................40 Post-rubber Political-economy in PDS São Salvador.................................................45 The State of Acre........................................................................................................61 The Municipality of Mâncio Lima.............................................................................67 The Research Site─PDS São Salvador.......................................................................69 Seasonal Calendar of Resource Use...........................................................................75 Travel in PDS São Salvador.......................................................................................80 3 METHODS.................................................................................................................87 The Household............................................................................................................89 House and Household in Movement...........................................................................91 Fieldwork....................................................................................................................96 vii Methodological Considerations..................................................................................97 Household Surveys.....................................................................................................98 Productive and Reproductive Household Survey.....................................................103 Time Allocation Surveys..........................................................................................104 Hunting Outings........................................................................................................109 Participant Observation............................................................................................110 4 HUNTING WITHIN THE HOUSEHOLD (INTRA-HOUSEHOLD).....................112 The Hunt in PDS São Salvador................................................................................113 Hunting Techniques..................................................................................................122 Material Realities of the Household and Hunting....................................................126 Household Gender Relationships and Hunting.........................................................134 Gender Hypotheses and Hunting Practice................................................................141 Emotional Commitment to Hunting.........................................................................144 Seasonality and Hunting...........................................................................................147 Modeling Intra-household Effects of Hunting Frequency........................................151 Conclusion................................................................................................................155 5 HUNTING ACROSS HOUSEHOLDS (INTER-HOUSEHOLD)...........................162 Hunting Across Households.....................................................................................162 Meat Exchange.........................................................................................................173 Inter-household Hypotheses on Hunting..................................................................180 Modeling Inter-household Hunting Relationships....................................................183 Modeling Intra-household with Inter-household Effects on Hunting.......................185 Conclusion................................................................................................................188 6 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................190 Summary of Key Findings and Conclusions............................................................192 Implications of Findings for Anthropology..............................................................205 Implications of Findings for Conservation and Development..................................209 Implications of Findings for Gender Studies............................................................213 APPENDIX A HOUSEHOLD SURVEY.........................................................................................215 B PRODUCTIVE/REPRODUCTIVE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY...............................220 C TIME ALLOCATION..............................................................................................222 D HUNTING OUTINGS..............................................................................................223 LIST OF REFERENCES.................................................................................................224 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...........................................................................................240 viii LIST OF TABLES Table page 2-1 Community Hunting Regulations in PDS São Salvador..........................................59 3-1 Field Research Schedule..........................................................................................97 3-2 Household Sampling..............................................................................................102 4-1 Households that Enjoy Hunting.............................................................................115 4-2 Age that Hunters Began to Hunt............................................................................117 4-3 Hunting Frequency across Communities...............................................................118 4-4 Spot Sampling of Adult Activities by Community................................................120 4-5 Domesticated Animals by Household....................................................................131 4-6 Mean, Standard Deviation of Domesticated Animals/Household.........................131 4-7 Productive and Reproductive Household Activities by Gender.............................136 4-8 Spot Sampling of Household Activities by Gender...............................................139 4-9 Household Activities as a Function of Rain or Sun...............................................150 4-10 T-test for Significance of Intra-household Material & Gender Variables..............151 4-11 Multivariate Regression Modeling of Intra-household Influence on Frequency of Hunting..............................................................................................................153 5-1 Frequency of Hunting per Household by Community...........................................168 5-2 Hunting Success/Household...................................................................................173 5-3 Meat Sharing by Relation to Giving Household....................................................177 5-4 Sharing of Wild Game by Gender within Hunting Households.............................178 5-5 Multivariate Regression Modeling of Inter-household Influence on Frequency of Hunting...................................................................................................................184 5-6 Multivariate Regression Models (Intra-household and Inter-household)..............186 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1 Diagram of Peasant Hunting in PDS São Salvador..................................................21 2-1 Map of PDS São Salvador........................................................................................53 2-2 Map of Acre.............................................................................................................71 2-3 The Moa River Cut through the Heart of PDS São Salvador...................................75 2-4 Seasonal Calendar of Activities...............................................................................76 3-1 Research Assistant Interviewing Resident of the Community Boa Vista................96 4-1 Frequency of Hunting.............................................................................................113 4-2 Hunter from Rio Azul with Tucano (Ramphastos vitellinus) and Nambu Galinha (Tinamus guttatus)..................................................................................................124 4-3 Number of Children Living in a Household...........................................................129 5-1 Number of Hunting Outings per Month.................................................................167 5-2 Method of Hunting per Household by Community...............................................169 5-3 Hunting Success per Household by Community....................................................170 5-4 Size of Animals Hunted per Household by Community........................................171 5-5 Woman Cleaning Paca (Agouti paca) Hunted by Her Husband............................179 x