HUMAN TRAFFICKING ACROSS A BORDER IN NIGERIA: EXPERIENCES OF YOUNG WOMEN WHO HAVE SURVIVED TRAFFICKING BY: KEMI FISAYO OYEBANJI (3575899) A MINI-THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF WOMEN’S AND GENDER STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF THE WESTERN CAPE. SUPERVISOR: DR. SISA NGABAZA NOVEMBER 2017 i Declaration I declare that “Human Trafficking Across a Border Town in Nigeria; Experiences of Young Women who have Survived Trafficking” has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university and that all sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by complete references. Kemi Fisayo Oyebanji 14/03/18 Full Name Date Signature ii http://etd.uwc.ac.za Abstract Human trafficking is a global issue that most countries have battled to control and combat in recent times. It is exploitative, abusive and violates human rights. Research showing the prevalence of human trafficking in mostly underdeveloped and developing countries with slack border controls and ineffective immigration activities seem to foreground women as victims in most cases. Although men, women and children are all prone to trafficking, young women and girls are more vulnerable due to political, economic and social factors. This study focuses on the experiences of young women who survived trafficking. Working within a qualitative feminist framework, this study explores the lived experiences of trafficked young women across a border in Nigeria. Five participants aged twenty to twenty-five were selected through convenience and snowballing sampling. Narrative thematic analysis was used as a methodology for data analysis. Findings from this study clearly show multiple factors which contribute to young women’s vulnerability to trafficking. Some of the factors included family instability, feminization of poverty and gender inequality, which saw male children preferred over their female counterparts. Low levels of education and lack of care and support from the family further emerged as a source of vulnerability to trafficking for young women due to their low level of education. Gender and sexuality played a role in the reason for trafficking in this case, because all of the survivors were trafficked for the purpose of commercial sex work. Key Words Trafficking, Vulnerability, Gender, Survivors, Intersectionality, Exploitation, Nigeria, Feminist, Research, Young Women. iii http://etd.uwc.ac.za Acknowledgements All thanks to Almighty God for His divine wisdom, unending mercies and grace bestowed upon me to write and complete this thesis. To my supervisor Dr. Sisa Ngabaza, I would like to express my sincere gratitude for believing in me when I embarked on this journey. Your support, encouragement, patience, advice and always creating time for me whenever I ran to you throughout the thesis writing process is immeasurable. My appreciation goes to all the members of staff of Women’s and Gender Studies department. You have all been a part of my journey and I appreciate you all. To the Faculty of Arts and the Post Graduate Office, University of the Western Cape, your professional support and guidance at all times is well appreciated. My profound gratitude goes to my parents Chief and Chief Mrs. Akingbade for laying the foundation of my academic journey and for always supporting my dreams. I appreciate God for your positive impact in my life. My cheerleaders, my siblings, you have all been so amazing. Your support, prayers and encouragements did not go unnoticed. To my in-laws I say a big thank you for your continuous encouragement and prayers. Finally, to my feminist husband Dr. Oyebola Oyebanji, you believed in me and held my hands all the way even when I was in doubt. Your prayers, constant encouragement and love, has brought me this far. I would not have been able to do this without you. Oluwatofunmi and Oluwatoni Oyebanji thank you for your understanding and love at all times. iv http://etd.uwc.ac.za CONTENTS Declaration ii Abstracts iii Keywords iv Acknowledgements v CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background and rationale of study 1 1.2. Human trafficking – Definitions 3 1.3. A global overview on human trafficking 5 1.4. Human trafficking in Sub-Sahara Africa 8 1.5. Human trafficking in West Africa-Nigeria 10 1.6. Aims of the study 14 1.7. Research questions 14 1.8. Outline of thesis 14 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction 16 2.2. Feminist debates on human trafficking 17 2.2.1. Trafficking and sex work 17 2.3. Young women’s experiences of trafficking 19 2.4. Factors exposing young women to trafficking in Nigeria 21 2.4.1. Gender and vulnerability to trafficking for young women. 21 2.4.2. Power dynamics and vulnerability to trafficking 22 v http://etd.uwc.ac.za 2.4.3. Gender inequality and vulnerability to trafficking 24 2.4.4. Gender and sexuality 28 2.4.5. Economic and global inequality 29 2.5. Conclusion 30 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3. Introduction 31 3.1. Qualitative feminist research methodology 31 3.2. Study site 32 3.3. The demographic of the participants 33 3.4. Selection criteria 33 3.5. Interviews 34 3.6. Procedure 35 3.7. Thematic narrative analysis 36 3.8. Ethics 37 3.9. Self-reflexivity 38 3.10. Limitations 39 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 4. Introduction 40 4.1. Factors enhancing vulnerability of young women to trafficking 41 4.1.1 Narratives of family instability and feminization of poverty 41 4.1.1.1. Polygamy 41 4.1.1.2. Economic empowerment 45 4.1.1.3. Gendered cultural practices 48 vi http://etd.uwc.ac.za 4.1.1.4. Child fostering and financial constrains 49 4.1.1.5. Selling children to traffickers 51 4.1.1.6. I stopped going to school: low levels of education 53 4.2. Narratives of experiences of trafficking 55 4.2.1. Narratives of deceit and desire for a better life 55 4.2.2. Power, manipulation and control 59 4.2.3. Debt bondage as a means of control and sexual exploitation 62 4.2.4 Experiences of physical violence, psychological and physical abuse 68 4.3. Narratives on the impacts of trafficking 72 4.3.1. Regrets, guilt and sadness 73 4.3.2. I can never travel out of the country again 77 4.3.3. Who wants to marry ‘Ashewo’ (prostitute) 78 4.3.4. There is no difference in what we were doing before and now 80 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Introduction 83 5.2. Summary of findings 83 5.3. Methodological contributions of study 87 5.4. Theoretical contribution of study 88 5.5. Recommendations for future studies and suggestions 90 References 93 vii http://etd.uwc.ac.za Appendixes 113 viii http://etd.uwc.ac.za CHAPTER ONE 1.1 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE OF STUDY In December 2009, I travelled to Nigeria for a holiday and paid a visit to my sister who is one of the teachers in one of the secondary schools in the community. As we spoke, she told me a horrid story about a student who was struggling financially and was tricked into human trafficking by going across the border to make quick money. I was interested in this story and further discovered that this was not a new occurrence, especially among young students, and had resulted in many young girls dropping out of school. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) considers Nigeria as one of the top eight countries of origin for human trafficking globally (Cherti et al. 2013:4). Although men, women and children are exposed to, and have been victims of trafficking, the prevalent rate of trafficking is, however, higher for young women due to several intersecting factors in the Nigerian society. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is an organisation that provides global assistance to trafficked persons. In 2011, IOM provided individual assistance to 5,498 trafficked persons (IOM 2012). More than half (62%) of these persons were adults aged 18 and over, whereas around 40 per cent of cases (36%) were minors and about two per cent (2%) unknown. Two-thirds (62%) of these individuals were female, a little bit more than one third were males (37%), and the sex of the individual is unknown in just one per cent of cases (1%) (IOM 2011:6). Although the local, state and the federal government of Nigeria have put lots of efforts in place to address the unending issue of human trafficking in the society, much still needs to be achieved in order to combat the human trafficking phenomenon. Nigeria has acquired the reputation of being one of the leading African countries in human trafficking, with cross-border and internal trafficking constituting the vast majority of illegal trafficking (UNESCO 2006). Most stakeholders such as NGOs and the Government of Nigeria, however, contribute towards fighting against the unremitting act of human trafficking, but focus mainly on the preventive side. There are several awareness programmes in place to raise awareness and educate the general public to prevent future occurrences of trafficking. Despite all of these, human trafficking rates in Nigeria remain high. 1 http://etd.uwc.ac.za The fight against human trafficking is all encompassing, involving several stakeholders, survivors, multilateral organizations, NGOs, donors, academics, and individuals (TIP 2016:17- 18). Activists, on the other hand, have also made the global agenda for fighting human trafficking popular. These activists have captured the attention of the general public, government, media and politicians with several stories of innocent women and girls who suffered in captivity, exploited and abused. With such a perception of reality dominating the public understanding of what trafficking is, researchers and data producers have been struggling to keep up with this unending phenomenon (Tydlum 2010:1). Empirical research of this nature with gender perspectives is essential, because research studies on human trafficking have met with several challenges. Some of these challenges include the unreliability of data and generalized statistics of quantitative studies, which has affected the measures to address human trafficking in the society. Due to the inaccurate data on human trafficking, emphasis should not be attached to the numbers provided by both governmental and non-governmental organizations, as they lack accuracy (Feingold 2011). This clearly indicates that combating human trafficking by using the estimated total number of victims trafficked will not be as effective as addressing the issue from the source. Therefore, research studies on experiences of trafficked survivors will provide a better understanding of the dynamics, processes, and the modus operandi involved in human trafficking. This feminist qualitative research aims to produce meaning from lived experiences rather than from figures obtained in a quantitative survey. It is common knowledge that, due to the hidden nature of human trafficking, trafficked survivors are often difficult to reach due to their remote location and their marginalized status in society. Research studies on survivors of human trafficking are, however, indispensable because understanding the characteristics, location and the nature of vulnerability is essential to achieve effective anti-trafficking policies (World Bank 2009). Therefore, research studies on human trafficking cannot be considered superfluous because of the continuous rise in reported cases of human trafficking across major borders. This study is about echoing survivors’ voices in the society. Therefore, a feminist qualitative research method is most suitable for this study, as this study seeks to understand the social realities and impacts of lived experiences on survivors and the society. One of the key principles of a feminist approach to research is that it questions or provides an alternative or counter paradigm to traditional positivist methods of research, which exploit and impose 2 http://etd.uwc.ac.za