This page is intentionally left blank. HUMAN LEARNING SEVENTH EDITION Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita) Boston  Columbus  Indianapolis  New York  San Francisco  Hoboken Amsterdam  Cape Town  Dubai  London  Madrid  Milan  Munich  Paris  Montréal  Toronto Delhi  Mexico City  São Paulo  Sydney  Hong Kong  Seoul  Singapore  Taipei  Tokyo DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. i K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 1 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services Vice President and Editorial Director: Senior Art Director: Diane Lorenzo Jeffery W. Johnston Cover Designer: Jennifer Hart Vice President and Publisher: Kevin M. Davis Cover Art: Refat / Shutterstock Editorial Assistant: Caitlin Griscom Full-Service Project Management: S4Carlisle Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Publishing Services Senior Product Marketing Manager: Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Christopher Barry Printer/Binder: Courier/Kendallville Project Manager: Lauren Carlson Cover Printer: Courier/Kendallville Procurement Specialist: Carol Melville Text Font: 10/12, ITC Berkeley Oldstyle Std Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text. Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change. Copyright © 2016, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis. Human learning / Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern Colorado (Emerita).—Seventh edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-357928-4 1. Learning, Psychology of. 2. Behaviorism (Psychology) I. Title. BF318.O76 2014 153.1'5—dc23 2014030398 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10: 0-13-357928-X ISBN 13: 978-0-13-357928-4 DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. ii K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 2 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services To Olivia, Miles, and Jack, the next generation of learners DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. iii K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 3 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services This page is intentionally left blank. DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. iv K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 4 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services Preface I always enjoy writing and updating Human Learning. Each passing year brings exciting new research findings about how human beings think and learn. As a result, each year also brings new strategies for helping learners of all ages acquire information and skills—as well as beliefs, motives, and attitudes—that will be useful and productive both inside and outside the classroom. As you explore the nature of human learning in the pages ahead, I hope that my fascination with the topic will be contagious. I’ve written this book with particular readers in mind: those who would like to learn about learning but don’t necessarily have much background in psychology. Such readers may benefit from studying the historical roots of learning theories but prefer to focus their energies on study- ing contemporary perspectives and ideas. These readers might find learning theories fascinating but lose patience when they can’t see much relevance of the theories to everyday practice. They don’t want to be overwhelmed by the many nit-picky sources of disagreement among theorists who, for the most part, are explaining human learning and thinking processes in very similar ways. And they’re quite capable of reading a dry, terse textbook but probably learn more effec- tively from a book that shows how different concepts relate to one another; provides numerous examples; and, especially, emphasizes meaningful learning—true understanding—of the material it presents. New to This Edition Users of the sixth edition will see a great many changes in this seventh edition. As I always do, I’ve updated the text in innumerable spots to reflect current theoretical perspectives and research findings regarding cognition, learning, and instructional practices. I’ve also increased coverage of technology-based interventions in several chapters. And I’ve worked hard to tighten my prose, eliminating needless redundancies and clarifying spots that struck me as awkward or ambigu- ously worded. A more noticeable change is a reduction of the sixth edition’s 17 chapters into 15 c hapters. The three previous behaviorism chapters are now only two, “Behaviorist Principles and Theo- ries” (Chapter 3) and “Applications of Behaviorist Principles” (Chapter 4), with considerable v DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. v K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 5 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services vi PREFACE reorganization of topics. In addition, the two previous chapters on long-term memory storage and retrieval have been combined into a single chapter, “Long-Term Memory Storage and Re- trieval Processes” (Chapter 8), with deletion of some ideas and examples that were probably “TMI”—too much information. Furthermore, consistent with our ever-evolving understanding of human learning, I’ve added or expanded on a number of topics, and I’ve deleted a handful of topics that, again, were probably TMI. Following are notable examples: • Chapter 1: New (brief) discussion of different types of learning research (per reviewer re- quests); updated discussion of how theories have evolved over time to incorporate other contextual views and neuroscience; expansion of Figure 1.2 to portray new theoretical orientations on the scene. • Chapter 2: New discussion of adolescent risk taking in the section on brain development; new discussion of heredity/environment interactions in brain development; new bullet regarding the importance of sleep and exercise. • Chapter 3 (integration of parts of the former Chapters 3 and 4): Discussion of classical condi- tioning in television commercials (per reviewer request); switch back to the term operant conditioning in the discussion of reinforcement, with the term instrumental conditioning being introduced in a subsequent section on punishment; deletion of sections on sensory preconditioning and Guthrie’s (1935) strategies for breaking habits; explanation of what reinforcement means in classical conditioning (per reviewer request); token reinforcers added as a new bulleted item to the section on positive reinforcement. • Chapter 4 (formerly Chapter 5, with the addition of some content from the former Chapter 3): Inclusion of Common Core in the section on instructional objectives; new section on assessment practices from a behaviorist perspective, with relevant discussions of high- stakes tests, backward design, and rubrics. • Chapter 5 (formerly Chapter 6): Revision of “emotional state” to “physiological state” as a factor affecting self-efficacy, to represent more accurately Bandura’s (1997) discussion of this factor; addition of effortful control as an individual difference variable in self- regulation; addition of self-videos as a strategy for self-monitoring; new bulleted section on teacher self-efficacy. • Chapter 6 (formerly Chapter 7): Movement of general assumptions to beginning of chapter, to be parallel to the organization of Chapters 3 and 5; more explicit ties of cognitivist ideas to social cognitive theory. • Chapter 7 (formerly Chapter 8): Expansion of the discussion of the central executive, with a subheading to enhance its visibility in the chapter; discussion of effortful control here as well as in Chapter 5; expanded discussion of long-term memory’s permanence or non- permanence (moved from the old Chapter 11); introduction of the concept cognitive load, which has been alluded to but not specifically labeled in previous editions; enhanced discussion of how to help students direct their attention in beneficial ways, including the issue of choosing productive links in websites and instructional software; new bullet regarding the possible value of computer-based strategies for enhancing attention and working memory capacity (note my use of the word possible, because the jury’s still out on the viability of such approaches). • Chapter 8 (formerly Chapters 9 and 11): Content condensed, with some content being moved into Chapter 7; reorganization of content to minimize redundancies; critique of the literature on learning styles (in a footnote). DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. vi K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 6 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services PREFACE vii • Chapter 9 (formerly Chapter 10): Addition of a possible neurological explanation for the difficulty of undergoing significant conceptual change; new discussion of multiple-choice formative assessment tasks as a way of encouraging conceptual change. • Chapter 10 (formerly Chapter 12): Addition of cognitive load as an issue in inquiry learning. • Chapter 11 (formerly Chapter 13): New discussion of communities of practice; concept of le- gitimate peripheral participation (formerly in a footnote) brought into the body of the text; expanded discussion of other contextualist views, with headings and a new section and fig- ure on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory; new bullet regarding t echnology-based strategies for scaffolding performance and/or providing virtual realistic settings for skill development; expanded discussion of technology-based collaborative learning. • Chapter 12 (formerly Chapter 14): New discussion of metacognitive skills and strategies important for hypertext and the Internet; expansion of what co-regulated learning might involve; reduced overlap with discussion of effective storage processes in what is now Chapter 8; deletion of the keyword mnemonic for remembering dates and other numbers (because very few people actually use it); expanded discussion of epistemic beliefs; inclu- sion of Betty’s Brain as an example of technology-based metacognitive scaffolding. • Chapter 13 (formerly Chapter 15): Addition of the concept adaptive expertise in the discus- sion of transfer and problem solving; expanded discussion of possible scaffolds for stu- dent problem solving, with a focus on technology-based supports (e.g., intelligent tutors); expanded discussion of authentic activities, including a new bullet on technology-based semi-authentic activities; new figure illustrating how a multiple-choice question might assess transfer; expanded discussion of critical thinking. • Chapter 14 (formerly Chapter 16): Expanded discussion of situated motivation to empha- size person–environment interactions; heavier emphasis on the term autonomy (rather than on self-determination), in line with most contemporary writings about this topic; expansion of the section on the need for relatedness to include the need for belonging and the sixth edition’s material on the need for affiliation; new section on one’s sense of identity as an individual difference variable in motivation; addition of adaptability to the discussion of dispositions; new discussion of boredom as an affective state. • Chapter 15 (formerly Chapter 17): Expanded discussion of interest to include sociocultural influences on its development; expansion of section on work-avoidance goals to include doing-just-enough goals; addition of emotion regulation as a key term in the section on self-regulation; new discussion of epistemic beliefs on student-identified goals in a learn- ing activity. Acknowledgments Although I’m listed as the sole author, I’ve certainly not written this book alone. Many people have helped me along the way: • Frank Di Vesta, my adviser and mentor at Penn State, who taught me a great deal about learning and refused to let me graduate until I also learned a great deal about writing. • Kevin Davis, my editor at Pearson, who continues to guide, support, and inspire me in my efforts to shed light on the many ways in which psychology can inform practice in educational and therapeutic settings. • The production folks at Pearson and S4Carlisle, especially Lauren Carlson and Lynn Steines, who have expertly organized and overseen the countless steps involved in DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. vii K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 7 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services viii PREFACE transforming my word-processed manuscript and rough sketches into the finished prod- uct you see before you. In this high-tech day and age, publishing a book is a very com- plicated process that I’m grateful they know how to complete. I’m also indebted to Chris Feldman, a meticulous copy editor who is always a joy to work with and has accommo- dated my many idiosyncratic methods. • My colleagues across the nation who have read early drafts or editions most thoroughly and conscientiously and whose suggestions have greatly improved the final product: Joyce Alexander, Indiana University; Livingston Alexander, Western Kentucky Uni- versity; Kay Allen, University of Central Florida; Martha B. Bronson, Boston College; Margaret W. Cohen, University of Missouri at St. Louis; Ralph F. Darr, Jr., The University of Akron; Jean C. Faieta, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania; Sarah Huyvaert, Eastern Michigan University; Janina Jolley, Clarion University of Pennsylvania; Brett Jones, Virginia Tech; Joseph Kersting, Western Illinois University; Mary Lou Koran, University of Florida; Gerald Larson, Kent State University; Mark Lewis, University of Texas at Tyler; Michael S. Meloth, University of Colorado; Karen Murphy, The Pennsylvania State University; John Newell, University of Florida at Gainesville; Jim O’Connor, California State University at Bakersfield; Nimisha Patel, Arizona State University; Sarah Peterson, Duquesne University; Jonathan Plucker, Indiana University; Steven Pulos, University of Northern Colorado; Daniel Robinson, University of Texas at Austin; Loretta Rudd, Texas Tech University; Jack Snowman, Southern Illinois University; and Karen Zabrucky, Geor- gia State University. • Colleagues who reviewed the sixth edition and offered many helpful suggestions for add- ing to and in other ways enhancing my discussions in the seventh edition: Audrey M. Ambrosino, Georgia State University; Shawn M. Glynn, University of Georgia; Yashu Kauffman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Yaoran Li, University of Missouri; and Anandi Nagarajan, Rutgers University and Rider University. • My husband, Richard, and my children, Christina, Alex, and Jeffrey, who have been eter- nally supportive of my writing endeavors and provided me with numerous examples of human learning in action. • My parents, James and Nancy Ellis, who long ago taught me the value of higher education. • My students, who urged me to write the book in the first place. • Other students around the globe, who continue to give me feedback about how I can make the book better. (An easy way to reach me is at [email protected].) Jeanne Ellis Ormrod DESIGN SERVICES OF # 154203   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg. No. viii K S4-CARLISLE A01_ORMR9284_SE_07_FM.indd 8 29/10/14 11:33 am Title: Human Learning   7e Short / Normal Publishing Services