Human Development in Adulthood The Plenum Series in Adult Development and Aging SERIES EDITOR: JackDemick, SuffolkUniversity,Boston,Massachusetts ADULT DEVELOPMENT, THERAPY, AND CULTURE A Postmodern Synthesis Gerald D. Young THE AMERICAN FATHER Biocultural and Developmental Aspects Wade C. Mackey THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOGIC IN ADULTHOOD Postformal Thought and Its Applications JanD. Sinnott HANDBOOK OFAGING AND MENTALHEALTH An Integrative Approach Edited byJacobLomranz HANDBOOK OFCLINICALGEROPSYCHOLOGY Editedby MichelHersen and Vincent B. Van Hasselt HANDBOOK OFPAIN ANDAGING Edited by David I. Mostofsky andJacobLomranz HUMAN DEVELOPMENTIN ADULTHOOD Lewis R.Aiken PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTOFOLDERADULTS An Introductory Text Edited by MichelHersen and Vincent B. Van Hasselt Human Development in Adulthood Lewis R. Aiken Pepperdine University, Retired Malibu, California Kluwer Academic Publishers - New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow eBookISBN: 0-306-47146-9 Print ISBN: 0-306-45734-2 ©2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow All rights reserved No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher Created in the United States of America Visit Kluwer Online at: http://www.kluweronline.com and Kluwer's eBookstore at: http://www.ebooks.kluweronline.com Preface Human Development in Adulthood is designed as a comprehensive overview of adult development for students of psychology, sociology, and social work, as well as those planning to enter nursing and other health-related or human- service professions. It is written so anyone who is interested in the topic can learn and benefit from reading the material. Concepts, theories, research findings, and practical implications of the information are all presented thoroughly and understandably. In addition to physical, cognitive, person- ality, social, and sexual development in adulthood, the book deals with gender and ethnic group differences and issues, love and marital relations, living conditions and economic problems, crime and war, and aging and death. This book is interdisciplinary, including concepts, theories, and research findings from biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, polit- ical science, and other disciplines. Emphasis is placed on the fact that human beings are similar in many ways, but that everyone is a unique entity with his or her own perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. Each person of a particular age, sex, race, culture, and socioeconomic status is shaped somewhat differ- ently by the interaction between biological, psychological, and social struc- tures and events. A guiding theme of the book is that, rather than ending with childhood and adolescence, development and change continue across the life span. People do not abruptly cease being children and become adolescents over- night, nor do they stop being adolescents at age 18 and suddenly become adults. Human development is much more gradual than that, and we may scarcely notice when boys and girls turn into adults. Adulthood is both a transition between the beginning and end of life and a continuing journey from youth to old age. It is often convenient to divide that journey into a series of stages, but the stages are rarely abrupt breaks with the past. Like other journeys, adulthood is one in which later circumstances are affected by earlier experiences and choices. Not only are adults similar to and different from each other but also they are similar to and different from what they were at earlier stages of development. The organizational plan of the book reflects the fact that, although indi- v vi Preface vidual development is punctuated occasionallyby sudden leaps, there is a great deal of continuity in the experiences and behaviors of the individual over a lifetime: The child is father to the man (or woman) and the past is prologue to the future. Some of us, and all ofus in some ways, never grow up; we remain children or adolescents in certain respects even into later life. Although we may behave “maturely” most of the time, certain features of our personality and behavior can remain at an earlier “stage” of development, or when under great pressure we may respond as we did years before. Adulthoodisatimefordecisionsconcerningmarriage,career,parenting, and, in general, the style of life we want to live. The continuity of adult developmentisreflectedinthe factthatwhatwe decideand do todayaffects what we become tomorrow. The choices and decisions that we make now may have both short- and long-term implications for what we attain or achievenextweekandnextyear. Thosechoicesarenotalwayseasytomake, becausetheirconsequences arenevercompletelypredictable. Still, wemust choose, live with those choices if we can, and try to correct them if the outcomes areunbearable. The worldoftodayisapluralistic, multicultural, technologicallybased, and-at least in Western nations-individualistically oriented macrocosm replete with environmental, social, and political problems. The rules for peaceful coexistence have changed since yesteryear and the need to under- stand people of different cultures and in different economic, social, and political circumstances has become even more critical. The population of the worldcontinuestoexpand,andits demographicsareforeverchanging.Peo- ple ofvarious nationalities and ethnic groups have become physically and functionally closer and are competing for the same space and resources. Consequently, a comprehensive discussion of adult development should consider the important issues of today, including those centered in cultural, racial, gender, social class, economic, religious, and political differences. This I have tried to do. Many people have contributed to this book, including Eliot Werner, HermanMakler,andJacquelyn Coggin.Intheend,however,theresponsibil- ity for whatever shortcomings it may have is mine. LEWIS R. AIKEN Contents 1.The Study of Adult Development ............................. 1 Concepts and Foundations ... . .................................. 1 Research Methods ......................................... 8 Organizations and Ethics .................................... 21 Summary ................................................. ..... 23 Suggested Readings ........................................... 24 . 2 TheAging HumanBody........................................ 27 Physical Appearance .......................................... 28 Internal Organs and Systems.................................... 32 Sensation and Perception .................................. 39 Theories of Biological Aging .................................. 46 Summary ....................................................... 49 Suggested Readings ............................................ 50 . 3 Health andIllness .............................................. 51 Demographic Differences ........................................ 52 Acute and Nonlethal Chronic Disorders ...................... 55 Life-Threatening Disorders ....................................... 57 Accidents ........................................................ 66 Health Maintenance and DiseasePrevention ........................ 69 Summary ....................................................... 75 Suggested Readings .............................................. 77 . 4 Cognitive Development and Change ................................. 79 Intelligence .................................................. 80 Memory and Learning ............................................ 98 Problem Solving and Creativity ................................... 102 Summary ........................................................ 106 Suggested Readings .............................................. 107 vii viii Contents . 5 Personality Development and Disorders ......................... 109 Theories of Personality Development ........................... 110 Personality Traits ............................................ 116 Stress and Coping ............................................... 122 Mental Disorders ............................................ . 126 Summary ..................................................... 135 Suggested Readings .......................................... 137 . 6 Sex,Love, and Marriage ....................................... 139 Sex in Adulthood ............................................. 139 Love and Loving ............................................... 150 Married and Unmarried Adults ................................. 156 Summary ................................................... 16 8 Suggested Readings .......................................... 170 . 7 Families and Friends .......................................... 173 Parents and Children ............................................. 174 Grandparents ............................................................. 185 Siblings and Other Relatives ................................... 189 Friendships .............................................................. 191 Summary ...................................................... 197 Suggested Readings ............................................ 199 . 8 Gender, Race, and Social Status ................................ 201 Gender ....................................................... 202 Race and Ethnicity........................................... 213 Social Class and Status ........................................ 220 Ageism ..................................................... . 224 Summary .................................................... 227 Suggested Readings ........................................... 228 . 9 LivingEnvironments .......................................... 231 Location and Relocation ....................................... 231 Housing ........................................................ 237 Transportation and Assistance ........................... ....... 247 Summary ..................................................... 252 Suggested Readings .......................................... . 254 . 10 Income, Employment, and Retirement ........................... 255 Income and Poverty ......................................... . . 255 Employment ................................................... 262 Contents ix Retirement ................................................. 275 Summary ................................................. 282 Suggested Readings .......................................... 284 11. Spending,Leisure,and OtherNonemployment Activities ...... 285 Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Leisure Activities ............................................ 291 Other Activities of Older Adults............................... 294 Summary ................................................... 305 Suggested Readings .......................................... 306 12. Crime,War, andLaw ........................................... 309 Crime and CriminalBehavior ................................. 309 War and Terrorism .......................................... 322 Law and the Elderly ........................................ 330 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Suggested Readings ............................................ 336 13. Death,Bereavement,andWidowhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Demographics and Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Perspectives and Emotions . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 The Process of Dying ........................................ 349 The Aftermath of Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Widowhood ................................................ 358 Summary .................................................. 364 Suggested Readings ......................................... 366 Glossary ....................................................... 367 References ....................................................... 387 AuthorIndex .......................................................... 419 Subject Index ................................................... 427