Human Behavior, Communities, Organizations, and Groups in the Macro Social Environment SECOND EDITION Karen K. Kirst-Ashman University of Wisconsin-Whitewater Australia•Brazil•Canada•Mexico•Singapore•Spain UnitedKingdom•UnitedStates HumanBehavior,Communities,Organizations,and GroupsintheMacroSocialEnvironment SecondEdition KarenK.Kirst-Ashman SocialWorkEditor:DanAlpert PrintBuyer:JudyInouye DevelopmentEditor:TangeliqueWilliams PermissionsEditor:BobKauser AssistantEditor:AnnLeeRichards ProductionService:ICCMacmillanInc. EditorialAssistant:StephanieRue PhotoResearcher:TerriWright TechnologyProjectManager:JulieAguilar CopyEditor:RichardCamp MarketingManager:MeghanMcCullough CoverDesigner:PaulaGoldstein MarketingCommunicationsManager:ShemikaBritt CoverImage:StephanDaigle,GettyImages ProjectManager,EditorialProduction:TanyaNigh CoverPrinter:WestGroup CreativeDirector:RobHugel Compositor:ICCMacmillanInc. 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Scholtka, my dear aunt and the nicest person you could ever want to meet Contents PREFACE xx CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Human Behavior in the Macro Social Environment 1 What Is the Macro Social Environment? 6 The Macro Social Environment and Generalist Social Work Practice 8 Work Within an Organizational Structure 9 Using a Seven-Step Planned Change Process 9 Targeting Any Size System 10 Ecosystems Theory and the Macro Social Environment 11 Ecosystems Theory: Basic Terms Taken from Social Systems Theories 11 System 12 Boundaries 12 Subsystem 12 Homeostasis 12 Roles 12 Relationships 13 Input 13 Output 13 iv Contents v Negative andPositive Feedback 14 Interface 14 Differentiation 15 Entropy 15 Negative Entropy 15 Equifinality 15 EcosystemsTheory:BasicTermsTakenfromtheEcologicalPerspective 16 The Social Environment 16 HIGHLIGHT 1.1: SUMMARY OF SOME OF THE MAJOR CONCEPTS IN SYSTEMS THEORY AND THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 17 Energy 17 Adaptation 18 Person-in-Environment Fit 18 Stress, Stressors, andCoping 18 Relatedness 19 Interdependence 19 HIGHLIGHT 1.2: PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS 20 People’s Involvement with Multiple Systems in the Social Environment 20 A Wide Range of Professional Roles 24 HIGHLIGHT 1.3: THE HISTORY OF GENERALIST PRACTICE WITH AND WITHIN COMMUNITIES 25 Application of Critical Thinking Skills 26 Focus on Empowerment and the Strengths Perspective 29 The Strengths Perspective 30 HIGHLIGHT 1.4: WHAT ARE YOUR STRENGTHS? 32 Resiliency: Using Strengths to Combat Difficulty 32 Other Important Principles Characterizing Social Work in the Macro Social Environment 34 Human Diversity 34 HIGHLIGHT 1.5: SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND THE EXPRESSION OF GENDER 35 Culture 36 Cultural Competence 37 CompetencyOne:BecomingAwareofOne’sOwnAssumptions,Values,andBiases about HumanBehavior 37 CompetencyTwo:UnderstandingtheWorldviewofCulturallyDiverseClients 37 Competency Three:Developing Appropriate Intervention Strategies and Techniques 38 Competency Four:Understanding Organizationaland InstitutionalForces That Enhance orNegate CulturalCompetence 38 vi Contents Oppression 39 Populations-at-Risk 40 Promotion of Social and Economic Justice 40 Chapter Summary 41 CHAPTER 2 Human Behavior in Groups: Theories and Dynamics 43 Theoretical Perspectives on Groups 46 Field Theory 46 Social Exchange Theory 48 Learning Theory 48 HIGHLIGHT 2.1: ANALYSIS OF A CONVERSATION ACCORDING TO SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY 49 HIGHLIGHT 2.2: AN EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IN A MACRO SETTING 50 Cognitive-Behavioral Theory 50 HIGHLIGHT 2.3: AN EXAMPLE OF PUNISHMENT IN A MACRO SETTING 51 Psychoanalytic Theory 52 HIGHLIGHT 2.4: CASE EXAMPLE—ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO 53 Systems Theory 53 Objectives of Groups 54 Balance Between TaskandSocio-Emotional Functions 54 GroupFunctioning 55 Empowerment Theory 55 Social Justice 56 Consciousness Raising 56 Mutual Aid 56 Power 57 Multicultural Socialization 57 Feminist Theories 58 Usinga ‘‘Gender Lens’’ 59 TheEnd of Patriarchy 59 Empowerment 60 Consciousness Raising 60 ThePersonal Is Political 61 TheImportance of Process 62 Unity in Diversity:‘‘Diversity IsStrength’’ 62 Validation 62 Understanding Groups in the Macro Social Environment: Group Dynamics 63 Contents vii Communication 63 Positive Verbal Communication in Effective TaskGroups 64 Nonverbal Communication in TaskGroups 64 Cross-Cultural Differencesin Communication 65 Barriers to Communication 65 Self-Disclosure 66 HIGHLIGHT 2.5: CASE EXAMPLE—SELF-DISCLOSURE 67 Interpersonal Interaction 67 Norms 67 HIGHLIGHT 2.6: CASE EXAMPLES—INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION 68 Roles 69 Group Cohesiveness 70 Power and Status 70 Possible Sources ofPower inGroups 71 Leadership 71 Types ofLeadership 72 Leadership Skills 72 HIGHLIGHT 2.7: EMPOWERMENT BY GROUP LEADERS 73 Stages of Task Group Development 73 Stage 1: Task Group Composition 74 Definition of theGroup’s Purpose 74 The Group’s‘‘Social Context’’ 74 GroupSize 75 Stage 2: Beginnings 75 Stage 3: Assessment 76 Stage 4: Stabilization and Working 76 Stage 5: Endings and Evaluation 76 Chapter Summary 77 CHAPTER 3 Types of Groups in the Macro Social Environment 78 Task Groups 81 Teams 82 Treatment Conferences 83 HIGHLIGHT 3.1: BARRIERS TO SUCCESSFUL TEAMWORK AND TEAM EMPOWERMENT 84 Case Exampleof a Treatment Conference 84 Treatment GroupsVersusTreatment Conferences 86 viii Contents HIGHLIGHT 3.2: TREATMENT GROUPS 87 Administrative Groups 90 Clusters ofSupervisors and Administrators 91 Boards ofDirectors 92 Advisory Boards 92 Delegate Councils 92 Committees 93 Social Action Groups 93 HIGHLIGHT 3.3: EMPOWERMENT THROUGH GOOD LEADERSHIP 94 Social Action Groups and Empowerment 95 Increasing Understanding 95 Inspiring Others 96 Consciousness Raising 96 Providing Mutual Support 97 Using Cooperation 97 Chapter Summary 98 CHAPTER 4 Knowledge and Theories About Organizations 99 Defining Organizations 102 Organizations Providing Social Services 103 Social Agencies 104 HIGHLIGHT 4.1: COMMON TERMS 105 Organizational Theories 105 Classical Organizational Theories 107 Scientific Management 107 TheAdministrative Theoryof Management 107 Bureaucracy 108 Neoclassical Organizational Theories 109 Human Relations Theories 110 Theory XandTheory Y 110 Feminist Theories and Organizations 111 Cultural Perspective 113 Economics Theory 113 Chaos Theory 114 Contingency Theory 115 Culture-Quality Theories 116 Ecosystems Theories 116 Contents ix HIGHLIGHT 4.2: THEORY Z 117 Viewing Organizations from a Systems Perspective 118 Which Organizational Theory Is Best? 118 HIGHLIGHT 4.3: APPLYING ECOSYSTEMS CONCEPTS TO ORGANIZATIONS AND SOCIAL SERVICE AGENCIES 119 Chapter Summary 121 CHAPTER 5 Social Service Organizational Settings, Goals, and Environmental Contexts 122 The Importance of Organizations for Social Workers 125 Agency Settings 126 Primary Settings 126 Secondary Settings 126 HIGHLIGHT 5.1: CASE EXAMPLE—WORKING IN A SECONDARY SETTING 127 Mission Statements, Goals, and Objectives 128 Organizational Goals 129 Multiple Goals 130 HIGHLIGHT 5.2: OBJECTIVES INDICATE HOW TO ACHIEVE GOALS 131 Goal Displacement 132 HIGHLIGHT 5.3: AN EXAMPLE OF GOAL DISPLACEMENT—PROCESS SUPERSEDES PROGRESS 133 Ecosystems Theory, Organizations, and Goal Displacement 133 Goal Displacement and Generalist Practice 135 The Environmental Context of Social Service Organizations 135 Resources 135 HIGHLIGHT 5.4: CASE EXAMPLE—PERSONNEL RESOURCES 136 Legitimation 136 Client Sources 137 Relationships with Other Organizations 137 Uninvolved RelationshipsAmong Organizations 137 ‘‘Complementary’’ RelationshipsAmong Organizations 138 ‘‘Competitive’’ Relationships AmongOrganizations 138 The Impact of Social and Economic Forces on Social Service Organizations: The Shifting Macro Environment 138