Huber and Headrick’s HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION Facts and Fundamentals Huber and Headrick’s HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION Facts and Fundamentals Heidi H. Harralson • Larry S. Miller CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-5130-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Harralson, Heidi H., author. | Miller, Larry, 1953 August 26- author. Title: Huber and Headrick’s handwriting identification : facts and fundamentals / by Heidi H. Harralson and Larry S. Miller. Other titles: Handwriting identification Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017020188| ISBN 9781498751308 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315152462 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Writing--Identification. | Graphology. | Forensic sciences. Classification: LCC HV8074 .H77 2018 | DDC 363.25/65--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017020188 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To a notable researcher, forensic pioneer, esteemed colleague, and friend … Dr. Bryan Found 1962–2016 Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Authors of the First Edition xvii Authors of the Second Edition xix Introduction: The World of Documents xxi 1 History of Forensic Document Examination 1 1.1 Handwriting Identification and the Judicial Process 1 1.1.1 Documents and the Rules of Evidence 1 1.1.2 Prior to 1900 2 1.1.3 The Twentieth Century: The First 40 Years 3 1.1.4 1940 to 1975 4 1.1.5 1975 till Present 4 1.2 Defining Document Examination 6 1.2.1 The Purpose of Document Examination 7 2 The Development of Handwriting 9 2.1 The Mechanics of Handwriting 9 2.2 Handwriting Research 9 2.3 Origins of the Alphabet 12 2.3.1 The First Alphabet 17 2.3.2 Recent Writing Systems 22 2.4 History of Handwriting Instruction 22 2.5 Handwriting Training in the Digital Age 28 3 The Discrimination of Handwriting 31 3.1 Handwriting Identification 31 3.2 The Process Underlying Identification 32 3.2.1 Analysis or Discriminating Element Determination 32 3.2.2 Comparison 32 3.2.3 Evaluation 32 3.3 Handwriting Identification Training 36 3.4 Class or System Characteristics in Writing 39 3.5 National Characteristics in Writing 42 3.6 Individual Characteristics in Writing 43 3.7 Accidentals in Writing 45 3.8 Fundamental or Significant Difference in Writing 46 vii viii Contents 3.9 Conditions Contributing to Differences in Writing 49 3.9.1 Adequacy of Standards 49 3.9.2 Accidental Occurrences 49 3.9.3 Alternative Styles 50 3.9.4 Ambidexterity 50 3.9.5 Carelessness or Negligence 50 3.9.6 Changes in Health Condition of the Writer 50 3.9.7 Changes in Physical Condition of the Writer: Fractures, Fatigue, and Weakness 51 3.9.8 Changes in the Mental Condition or State of the Writer 51 3.9.9 Concentration on the Act of Writing 51 3.9.10 Disguise or Deliberate Change 51 3.9.11 Drugs or Alcohol 52 3.9.12 Influence of Medications 52 3.9.13 Intentional Change for Later Denial 52 3.9.14 Nervous Tension 52 3.9.15 Natural Variations—Beyond Those of Standards 52 3.9.16 Writing Conditions—Place or Circumstances 53 3.9.17 Writing Instrument 53 3.9.18 Writing Position—Including Stance 53 3.9.19 Writing Surface 54 3.9.20 Writing Under Stress 54 3.10 Elimination Conclusions 54 4 Premises for the Identification of Handwriting 57 4.1 Handwriting Identification and Points of Similarity 57 4.2 Relevant Information 59 4.3 Statistical Inference in the Identification Process 59 4.4 Logic and Reasoning Underlying Identification 62 4.5 The Identification Process and Training 64 4.6 Critiquing Handwriting Expertise 64 5 Fundamentals of the Identification Process 67 5.1 Underlying Processes of Handwriting Identification 67 5.2 How Handwriting Identification Differs from Related Disciplines 72 5.3 Difficulties and Limitations in Handwriting Identification 75 5.4 Axioms, Maxims, Principles, and Laws of Handwriting Examination 75 6 Discrimination and Identification of Handwriting 79 6.1 The Language of Letters 79 6.2 Discriminating Elements of Handwriting 81 6.2.1 Elements of Style 83 6.2.1.1 Arrangement 83 6.2.1.2 Class of Allograph 87 6.2.1.3 Connections 90 6.2.1.4 Design and Construction of Allographs 92 6.2.1.5 Dimensions 95 Contents ix 6.2.1.6 Slant or Slope 101 6.2.1.7 Spacing 103 6.3 Elements of Execution 106 6.3.1 Abbreviations 106 6.3.2 Alignment 108 6.3.3 Commencements and Terminations 110 6.3.4 Diacritics and Punctuation 111 6.3.5 Embellishments 112 6.3.6 Legibility or Writing Quality 113 6.3.7 Line Continuity 115 6.3.8 Line Quality 117 6.3.9 Pen Control 118 6.3.9.1 Point Load (Pen Pressure and Shading) 119 6.3.9.2 Pen Hold (Grasp) 124 6.3.9.3 Pen Position 125 6.3.10 Writing Movement 127 6.4 Attributes of All Writing Habits 129 6.4.1 Consistency or Natural Variation 129 6.4.2 Persistency 131 6.5 Combinations of Writing Habits 131 6.5.1 Lateral Expansion 131 6.5.2 Word Proportions 132 6.6 Summary 132 6.6.1 Artistic Quality 132 6.6.1.1 The 21 Elements in Review 133 7 Special Problems in the Discrimination and Identification of Writing 135 7.1 Identification of Handwritten Initials 135 7.2 Identification of Numerals and Symbols 136 7.2.1 Numerals and Textual Symbols 137 7.2.2 Dingbats and Iconic Symbols 140 7.3 Examining Writing of Foreign and Unusual Scripts 143 7.4 Anonymous Writing 148 7.5 The Classification of Handwriting 151 7.6 Establishing the Significance of Writing Habits 158 7.7 Distinguishing Synchronous from Asynchronous Writing 161 8 Extrinsic Factors Influencing Handwriting 167 8.1 The Variables of Handwriting 167 8.2 Extrinsic Factors Influencing Handwriting 167 8.2.1 Handwriting Systems 167 8.2.1.1 North American Handwriting Systems 169 8.2.1.2 Latin American Handwriting Systems 171 8.2.1.3 European Handwriting Systems 173 8.2.1.4 Middle Eastern Handwriting Systems 176 8.2.1.5 African Handwriting Systems 177