How the Brain Learns Sixth Edition Other Books From Corwin and David A. Sousa The Leadership Brain: How to Lead Today’s Schools More Effectively, 2003 How the Brain Influences Behavior: Management Strategies for Every Classroom, 2009 How the Gifted Brain Learns, Second Edition, 2009 How the ELL Brain Learns, 2011 How the Brain Learns to Read, Second Edition, 2014 How the Brain Learns Mathematics, Second Edition, 2015 How the Special Needs Brain Learns, Third Edition, 2016 From STEM to STEAM: Brain-Compatible Strategies and Lessons That Integrate the Arts (with Tom Pilecki), Second Edition, 2018 Brain-Compatible Activities for Mathematics, Grades K–1, 2010 Brain-Compatible Activities for Mathematics, Grades 2–3, 2010 Brain-Compatible Activities for Mathematics, Grades 4–5, 2010 Brain-Compatible Activities, Grades K–2, 2008 Brain-Compatible Activities, Grades 3–5, 2008 Brain-Compatible Activities, Grades 6–8, 2008 How the Brain Learns Sixth Edition David A. Sousa FOR INFORMATION: Copyright © 2022 by Corwin Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, no part of Corwin this work may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or A SAGE Company stored in a database or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the 2455 Teller Road publisher. Thousand Oaks, California 91320 When forms and sample documents appearing in this work are intended (800) 233-9936 for reproduction, they will be marked as such. Reproduction of their use www.corwin.com is authorized for educational use by educators, local school sites, and/or noncommercial or nonprofit entities that have purchased the book. SAGE Publications Ltd. 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Includes bibliographical references and index. 18 Cross Street #10-10/11/12 Identifiers: LCCN 2021045813 | ISBN 9781071855362 (paperback) | China Square Central ISBN 9781071855355 (epub) | ISBN 9781071855348 (epub) | Singapore 048423 ISBN 9781071855331 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Learning, Psychology of. | Learning—Physiological aspects. | Brain. Classification: LCC LB1057 .S65 2022 | DDC 370.15/23—dc23/eng/20211013 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021045813 President: Mike Soules Associate Vice President and This book is printed on acid-free paper. Editorial Director: Monica Eckman Publisher: Jessica Allan Content Development Editor: Mia Rodriguez Editorial Intern: Ricardo Ramirez Production Editor: Tori Mirsadjadi Copy Editor: Amy Hanquist Harris Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. 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Contents LIST OF PRACTITIONER’S CORNERS xi PREFACE xiii ABOUT THE AUTHOR xv INTRODUCTION 1 Looking Inside the Brain 1 Types of Brain Imaging 1 Implications for Teaching 4 Some Important Findings 4 Why This Book Can Help Improve Teaching and Learning 5 Chapter Contents 6 Who Should Use This Book? 7 Try It Yourself—Do Action Research 8 What’s Coming Up? 9 CHAPTER 1: BASIC BRAIN FACTS 13 Some Exterior Parts of the Brain 14 Lobes of the Brain 14 Motor Cortex and Somatosensory Cortex 15 Some Interior Parts of the Brain 15 Brain Stem 15 The Limbic System 16 Cerebrum 17 Cerebellum 17 Brain Cells 18 Brain Fuel 21 Neuron Development in Children 22 Windows of Opportunity 22 The Brain as a Novelty Seeker 27 Environmental Factors That Enhance Novelty 27 What’s Coming Up? 30 CHAPTER 2: HOW THE BRAIN PROCESSES INFORMATION 37 The Information Processing Model 37 Origins of the Model 38 Usefulness of the Model 38 Limitations of the Model 39 Inadequacy of the Computer Model 39 The Senses 40 Sensory Register 40 Short-Term Memory 41 Immediate Memory 41 Working Memory 43 Implications for Teaching 45 Criteria for Long-Term Storage 46 Relationship of Sense to Meaning 46 Meaning Is More Significant 47 Implications for Teaching 47 Long-Term Storage 48 Long-Term Memory and Long-Term Storage 49 The Cognitive Belief System 49 Self-Concept 50 Accepting or Rejecting New Learning 51 Implications for Teaching 51 Variations in Processing With Age 52 Learning Profiles (Styles) 52 What’s Coming Up? 52 CHAPTER 3: MEMORY, RETENTION, AND LEARNING 71 How Memory Forms 72 The Temporary Stimulus 72 Forming the Memory 72 Stages and Types of Memory 73 Stages of Memory 74 Types of Memory 74 Emotional Memory 76 Learning and Retention 78 Factors Affecting Retention of Learning 79 Rehearsal 79 Retention During a Learning Episode 81 Implications for Teaching 82 Learning Motor Skills 86 Brain Activity During Motor Skill Acquisition 87 Does Practice Make Perfect? 88 Daily Biological Rhythms Affect Teaching and Learning 91 Circadian Rhythm 91 The Importance of Sleep in Learning and Memory 92 Intelligence and Retrieval 94 Intelligence 94 Retrieval 96 Chunking 98 Forgetting 101 What’s Coming Up? 104 CHAPTER 4: THE POWER OF TRANSFER 123 What Is Transfer? 123 Transfer During Learning 124 Types of Transfer 124 Transfer of Learning 126 Teaching for Transfer 127 Factors Affecting Transfer 128 Teaching Methods 132 Transfer and Constructivism 134 English Language Learners (ELLs) and Transfer 135 Technology and Transfer 136 Additional Thoughts About Transfer 136 What’s Coming Up? 137 CHAPTER 5: BRAIN ORGANIZATION AND LEARNING 155 Brain Lateralization 155 Left and Right Hemisphere Processing (Laterality) 156 What Causes Specialization? 158 Specialization Does Not Mean Exclusivity 158 The Gender Connection 159 Schools and Brain Organization 163 Spoken Language Specialization 165 Learning Spoken Language 166 Learning a Second Language 168 What’s Coming Up? 169 CHAPTER 6: LEARNING TO READ AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS 181 Learning to Read 181 Is Reading a Natural Ability? 181 Neural Systems Involved in Reading 182 Skills Involved in Reading 182 Phases of Learning to Read 184 Problems in Learning to Read 185 Implications for Teaching Reading 189 Learning Mathematics 189 Number Sense 189 Teaching Brain-Friendly Mathematics 192 Difficulties in Learning Mathematics 196 Environmental Factors 196 Neurological Factors 198 Mathematics for English Language Learners (ELLs) 199 What’s Coming Up? 200 CHAPTER 7: THE BRAIN AND THE ARTS 207 The Arts Are Basic to the Human Experience 208 Why Teach the Arts? 208 The Arts and the Young Brain 209 The Arts Develop Cognitive Growth 209 The Arts and Creativity 211 The Sciences Need the Arts 212 Impact of the Arts on Student Learning and Behavior 213 Arts Education and Arts Integration 213 Other Areas of Impact 215 Music 217 Is Music Inborn? 217 Effects of Listening to Music Versus Creating Instrumental Music 217 How the Brain Listens to Music 218 The Benefits of Listening to Music 219 Creating Music 220 Benefits of Creating Music 221 Creating Music Benefits Memory 221 Does Creating Music Affect Ability in Other Subjects? 221 The Visual Arts 223 Imagery 223 Research on Visual Arts and Learning 224 Movement 225 Movement and the Brain 225 Implications for Schools 226 What’s Coming Up? 228 CHAPTER 8: THINKING SKILLS AND LEARNING 239 Characteristics of Human Thinking 239 Types of Thinking 240 Thinking as a Representational System 240 Thinking and Emotion 240 It Is OK to Make Mistakes—They Enhance Learning 241 Technology May Be Affecting How Students Think 241 The Dimensions of Human Thinking 242 Designing Models 242 Are We Teaching Thinking Skills? 243 Modeling Thinking Skills in the Classroom 243 The Importance of Academic Rigor and Engagement 244 Models of Learning 245 Curriculum Changes to Accommodate Higher-Order Thinking 248 Achieving Rigor Through Academic Teaming 250 Research Support for Student Academic Teaming 251 Academic Teaming and Cultural Diversity 253 Teaming Also Benefits Teachers 253 Academic Teaming Results in Schools 253 What’s Coming Up? 254 CHAPTER 9: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 267 Students Should Know How Their Brains Learn 267 Student Agency for Engagement 268 Supporting Social–Emotional Learning 270 Research on SEL Learning 270 Positive Emotional Classroom Climate 271 Daily Planning 271 General Guidelines 271 Daily Lesson Design 272 Questions to Ask During Lesson Planning 274 Unit Planning 274 Teacher’s Work Sample 274 Maintaining Skills for the Future 277 The Building Principal’s Role 277 Types of Support Systems 277 Conclusion 278 RESOURCES 285 GLOSSARY 289 REFERENCES 293 INDEX 309