Ageing&Society22,2002,7–28. "2002CambridgeUniversityPress 7 DOI:10.1017}S0144686X02008541 PrintedintheUnitedKingdom ‘I want to go!’ How older people in Ghana look forward to death u " In memory of Opanyin Kwame Frempong SJAAK VAN DER GEEST* ABSTRACT Older people in a rural Ghanaian community indicated that they look forward to death. Traditional ideas of ancestorhood, reincarnation and modern Christian beliefs about life after death had little influence on their resignation. Images of a possible ‘hereafter’ hardly existed. Agnosticism–in areligiousguise–prevailed.Theysawdeathforemostasawelcomerestafter alongandstrenuouslife.Theirreadinessfordeathdidnot,however,include an acceptance of euthanasia. Both the young and the old held the view that lifeanddeathareandshouldremaininGod’shands.Thisarticleisbasedon anthropological fieldwork in the rural town of Kwahu-Tafo in southern Ghana. KEY WORDS –older people, death, ancestors, agnosticism, reincarnation, Christianity, euthanasia, Ghana. Introduction Thepurposeofthisarticleistoexploretheviewsofolderpeopleabout death. It seeks to describe and understand the explanations and possible anxieties about death felt by those most close to it. The paper drawsfromalargeresearchprojectonthesocialandculturalmeaning of growing old, which was carried out between 1994 and 2000 in Kwahu-Tafo, a rural town of about 6,000 inhabitants on the Kwahu plateau of the Eastern Province of Ghana. The local population calls itself Kwahu: they are a subgroup of the Akan who constitute almost half of Ghana’s 18 million people. The Akan, who speak Twi, have a matrilinealkinship systemwhichinspite of various inroadssurvives in # both the rural and urban areas. The research is based mainly on conversations with 35 older people * Medical Anthropology Unit, Universityof Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 8 Sjaak Van Der Geest and some of their relatives. Snowball sampling was used to find this group (despite the incongruity in the tropics), beginning with my friends’ contacts in their neighbourhood. The concept ‘old’ was not clearlydefinedbeforetheresearchbegan.Thegroupcomprisespeople who were described by others as ‘old’. In practice, ‘old’ proved to be more of a term of respect than of calendar age per se. My only concern in selecting respondents was to guarantee some variation of the ‘sample’ in terms of gender, economic and social status, religious affiliation, and number of children. Most of the conversations with an older person circled around one topic, for example, his}her life history, the concept of ‘old’, the power ofolderpeopletoblessandtocurse,thecaretheyreceived(andgave), their ideas about a successful and unsuccessful life, respect and reciprocity, love, sex in old age, and finally, their views on death, the $ topic of this paper. These topics were not planned beforehand but grew ‘naturally’ out of earlier conversations. It often meant that one topic was discussed with one person and another with the next. With some older people I only had one or two conversations, with others many more. The eloquence of some was striking, and has encouraged quotations, for in many cases their way of expressing their views was effective and persuasive. There were in addition frequent, casual meetings as well as short visits to exchange greetings or to deliver a message. Observations duringthesevisitsconstitutedacrucialelementoftheresearch,asthey added depth and context to the oral accounts. All the longer conversations were taped, translated and transcribed. During most conversations I was accompanied by a co-researcher who verified my understandingoftheTwilanguage.Towardstheendofthefieldwork, the co-researchers sometimes held their own conversations with older membersofthecommunitywhileIwaswritingmyethnographicnotes. Theydiscussedthecontentsofthoseconversationswithmeafterwards, adding their own views. Doing research among older people has its contingencies: the informants don’t last long. Unlike in my own country, The Nether- lands, where older people are likely to live for another ten to twenty years,mostoftheeldersImetinKwahu-Tafo‘disappeared’suddenly. The research began in 1994 with 27 older people (13 women and 14 men),buttwoyearslater,tenhaddiedeventhoughmosthadnotgiven the impression that their lives would soon come to an end. Every time a letter arrived from Ghana, it announced someone’s death, usually accompanied by a description of the funeral. It made me realise how fragilelifeisinacommunitywhichlacksgoodhealthcare(eventhough How older people in Ghana look forward to death 9 thereisaclinicinthetown)and,moreimportantly,doesnothave the means to pay for the health care which is available. When I returned for additional fieldwork, I tried to find ‘substitute’ older people, so 35 older people took part in the research. As I write in December 2001, only six are still alive. This paper discusses eight related themes on the perception and experience of death among older people in Kwahu-Tafo. They emphasised that death is not something to be afraid of, but rather a welcome visitor that will bring the peace and rest for which they have longed. The concept of a ‘good death’ is closely linked with this positiveappreciation,but‘baddeaths’alsoexist.Goodandbaddeaths constitute the second theme of this article. The discussion also reveals a somewhat agnostic attitude about what happens to a person during and after death, the third theme, and the agnostic stand leads to the fourth theme: people’s views about reward or punishment after death. That discussion in its turn produces the fifth: the concept of ancestorhood. Other themes discussed in this paper are reincarnation [ [ and the phenomenon of okoba, the child which ‘returns’; and the influence of the Christian faith on people’s views of death. The last theme is the existence and acceptability of euthanasia. First, however, the social and cultural setting of death in Kwahu society is sketched. Death in Kwahu society Contrarytowhatonemightexpect,deathinKwahusocietyisaprivate affair. Funerals are public events but both the sickbed and death are confined to the seclusion of the house. Death remains strictly private until it is–literally–announced and preparations can start for the funeral.Death,indeed,isinmanywayseclipsedbythefuneral.People may not know about someone’s poor physical condition and sickness untilitisallover.Evenrelativesmaytakerelativelylittleinterestinthe sickness of a person. Medical care is expensive and the outcome is uncertain, so the willingness to spend money on a sick person who is goingtodieislimited(seeVanderGeest1995;Arhinful2000).Money spent on a funeral, however, is much more certain to be effective and to bear fruit. That difference in preparedness to pay is further promoted by the private}public distinction. Social criticism is more likely to be raised about a badly organised funeral which everybody observes,thanaboutapoorlycared-forpatienthiddeninthehouse.It is this contrast between pre- and post-mortem care which played a significant role in our conversations with older people about their 10 Sjaak Van Der Geest approaching death and funeral. Popular Highlife songs which are % playedatfuneralsinGhanaexpresslamentsanddespairaboutdeath. They typically represent the view of others, the young and the bereaved. They show us the behaviour which others are supposed to displaywhenconfrontedbydeathandrevealthenormssetbysociety: the more tears, the better. Those dying themselves, as we will see shortly, are less emotional about death. Welcome death Withoutexception,eacholderpersonwhodiscussedthetopicofdeath indicated that he or she was not worried by it. Most of them emphasised that they were rather looking forward to it, as they were tiredof living. One of them said, ‘letit happen ina flash’, and added, ‘anoldpersonisneverafraidofdeath’.Anolderwomanexpressedthat idea very briefly, ‘I want to go, I want to join my brothers’. Another woman said, ‘whether I am afraid or not, it will come when it is time for me’. One of my (S) conversations (in English) with an elder (M) ended thus: M: I am prepared. S: You would like it? M: Yes. S: Are you praying for it to come? M: Iamnotpraying,butifitcomes,Iwillmovealong.Itoldyoutheother day:‘Lifeiswar.ItislikethesoldierinVietnamwhosaid:‘‘Ifthebullet has your number on it, there is nothing you can do about it’’’. S: What do you think about death? M: Idon’tthinkmuch.Whenthetimecomes,itwillcome.Idon’tadditto my mathematics [It’s not part of my calculations]. Severalhave agoodreason tolongfordeath.Oneblind oldman said, ‘Because of what happened to my eyes, I would like to go’. A woman who was both blind and had one leg amputated was also waiting for death to relieve her. After she had praised her son for his good care (‘He does everything for me’), I asked her if she was happy about her present life. She reacted with indignation: ‘How can I be happy with this sickness?I would have liked it ifI had gone (died) whenIlost my leg’. Another older woman (D) who also had become blind explained why she wanted to die in the following words: D: I don’t think of death anymore. Because whether I think of it or not, it won’t come for me. I think that it will come but it does not come. S: Is it your wish? How older people in Ghana look forward to death 11 D: Yes, but it won’t come. S: Do you want to die? D: Yes, I want it: just to fall down and die. S: Why do you wish to die? D: Becauselivingisnotnice.Asetenanomunye[ fe[.Imaginenotseeingpeople. S: But people are caring for you. D: Yes, they are caring for me. S: Then why? D: BecauseIamaproblemtothem,Iammakingthemtootired.Eu ye[ saaa na mama wo[n rebere[ dodo. Ou kyeame& Opoku (O), in a discussion with Patrick (P), said that to die afteronehaspreparedoneselfisnotaproblem:nottodieisaproblem. O: Whenyouseethatyouareoldandmaydieanytime,youhavetomake the necessary arrangements to prevent problems after your death. For example, you can choose your successor. P: Aftermakingthenecessaryarrangements,doyoulookforwardtodeath? O: After[making]properarrangements(Wototowonee[mawiea)youarenot afraid if death will come in the morning, afternoon or evening. What I am afraid of is to lie in bed for a long time with sickness, but if you become old and die peacefully, it is a nice thing (e[ye[ anigye dee[ koraa). P: Does the thought of death not frighten you? O: Whetheryouareafraidornot,youwilldie.Youshouldnotworryabout yourdeath(e[nse[ se[ wofo[ wohose[ wobewukoraa).Aslongasyougrowold, youmustdie,sothereisnoneedtobeafraid.Somepeopledoalotofbad things,whichmakesthemsufferforalongtimebeforetheydie.Theyare punished before their death. They wish to die and be relieved but they don’t get [relief] because of their wrongdoings. P: Does it mean that death can be a relief to some people? O: Some people wish to die but they don’t because of their wrongdoings. Some people can have part of their body rotten but they don’t die because they are being punished. The ‘terror of death’ (Becker 1973) does not seem to affect older people. Death is not a ‘nasty five letter possibility’ (Schulz 1980: 239) butratherawelcomeguest,afriend.Butshouldwebelievetheelders? [ ElsewhereIhavearguedthattheopanyin(elder)issomeonewhoshould show self-restraint and control of his or her emotions (Van der Geest 1998b). It does not befit the elder to be anxious about anything, whether hunger, gossip, sex or jealousy. The elder is ‘cool and collected’,asalorryinscriptioninTwi-inspiredEnglishreads.Theonly persistent worry for the elder is to preserve or restore peace in the family. It is that code of restraint and good manners which may also [ prevent him from expressing anxiety about death. A real opanyin does not show any fear of death, for he is ready for it. His death should be as dignified as his life. In the remainder of this paper, I hope to 12 Sjaak Van Der Geest demonstrate that to elders the concept of a ‘welcome death’ is not merely a facade commanded by the cultural code, but does over- whelmingly characterise the local attitude towards death. ‘Good death’ and ‘bad death’ DuringoneofmystaysinKwahu-Tafo,thedeadbodyofayoungman, a member of the family household where I was lodging, was brought home to be buried. The stories about his death were confusing and contradictory: some said he was killed by robbers on his way to Abidjan.Hisdeathwassenseless.WhydidhegotoAbidjanatall?‘He died without a good cause’, as someone said. His death was violent, untimely and served no purpose. A typical example of a ‘bad death’ [ (owu bone). It is the type of death which is described in many Highlife songs, as tragic and ‘unnecessary’ (the essence of the tragedy). Those around suspect evil intention or a punishment, for why else should the person have died? A‘baddeath’isinitswidestsenseonewhichcomestooearly,which terminatesthelifeofsomeonewhohasnotyetcompletedhiscourse,has notyet cometofullmaturity. Miescher (1997:529) writesthat bad or [ [ accidental death (otofo wu) includes: ‘deaths caused by accidents or suicides,bycertainillnesses(tuberculosis,syphilisorleprosy),orduring childbirth’ (see also Sarpong 1974: 35; Baare! 1986: 55–56). Bartle (1977: 378), writing about the Kwahu town of Obo, remarked that–traditionally–awoman’sdeathduringchildbirthwastheworst of all deaths: If the woman dies during childbirth she is despised, her death is seen as a cowardly act worse than suicide, for she kills the child while she should be doinghermosthonourabledutyofbringingforth.Likeotherotofo(baddeath) corpses, hers was thrown in the bush where other pregnant women come to hurl abuse, spit and epithets while pointing plantain leaves at her. Bartle added, nowadays ‘the corpse is put in a box and buried with minimalceremony,whiletheshamefulnatureofherdeathishiddenor softenedbyeuphemisticcircumlocution’.Stillon‘baddeath’,Ou panyin Frempong spoke of a death at ‘tender age’, as a life ‘forced to break suddenly’ (wabu abugyen). The ‘badness’ of premature death is particularly felt if the deceased himself carries responsibility for his early death. One woman pointed to people who kill themselves by taking poison. A ‘bad death’ could be called a ‘good death’ in one sense, that it producesthestrongestemotions.Inherstudyoffuneralcelebrationsin How older people in Ghana look forward to death 13 Asante,MarleendeWitte(2001:92–93)describesthedramaticfuneral (soroku)ofayoungmanwhohaddiedattheageof28years.Thescene wasapandemoniumofvehementcrying,shouting,tootinghorns,men in women’s dress, and fighting around the grave. One woman was wavingcondomsindicatingtheincompletenessoftheyoungman’slife. In 1971 and 1973 I witnessed similar scenes at several funerals, one of Ou panyin Frempong’s wife (Bleek 1975: 57–69). The proverb quoted by several authors, that one should not rush to attend the funeral of someonewhohas‘stumbledtohisdeath’(Neawahintiwawuno,wontutu [ nko n’ayi ase), describes best etiquette more than the actual practice. A [ [ ‘stumbling to death’ or accidental death (otofo wu) may be shameful, but that does not prevent people from rushing to it. Rather, the large attendanceandemotional‘success’ofsuchfuneralsshroudsthedeath’s shameful character. ‘Bad deaths’ help bring the concept of a ‘good death’ (owu pa) into sharp focus: it is a death which is necessary because the allotted time isupandthepersonhaslivedhislifetotheend.Ou panyinFrempongput it beautifully in a metaphor for the dead trunk of a tree in the forest, one that did not die of disease or fire but reached its end in a natural way. On the same idea, Opoku said, ‘A good death is when a person dies a natural death, after having put his things in order. Good death, [ therefore,isthebestcrownforanopanyin’slife(asuccessfulfuneralisthe second)’. Agnosticism ‘Spirituallywecan’ttellwhereadeadpersonis.Thatsecretisbetween the dead and God. Whatever some may say on the subject is just imaginary.’ Thus Ou panyin Frempong summarised his view on what happens when a person dies: we do not know, and if somebody claims heknows,heisjustusingfantasy.HethencontinuedtoquotefromThe Bible, which I found him reading everyday, to support his agnostic stand. Frempong was not alone in his acknowledgement that nothing can be said with certainty about the dead. All older people whom we invited to give their views on death and being dead declined to do so. Ou kyeame Opoku said: Apersonisburiedafterdeathandhedoesnotknowwhathappensnext.They havebeensayingthatafterhisdeathagoodpersongoestoagoodplace(baabi pa),butifyoudidbadthings,youcan’tgothere.Youwillberoamingabout. Ihaveneverdied,soIdon’tknowhowitlookslike,butthatiswhatwehear (laughing).Itisasaying–noonehasbeentheretoknowthetruth.Wehave to take it so. 14 Sjaak Van Der Geest WhenPatrickaskedMaryDedaaifshebelievedtherewaspunishment or reward for people after death, she replied: ‘If there is punishment, it is only God who can tell’. People say that the dead go to Asamando, the place of the spirits, but that is just a word, a way of referring to ’ something, they do not know. The most frequent statement in our discussions on death was indeed, ‘We don’t know’. Of course there was ambivalence and contradiction. Some recited a general Christian truth about life after death, but when the discussion continued,agnosticstatementstookover.Ontheonehand,aswehave seen, death is near and familiar, a welcome guest; on the other hand, itisacompletestranger.Thisisnotsurprising,forGhanaisareligious country. Christian churches abound, pious texts are found on houses, signboards and cars, and one finds people reading The Bible every- where. One would probably expect that popular Christian ideas about Heaven and Hell and reward and punishment after death were commonly accepted. But they were not. WhatiscommonlyacceptedistheexistenceofGod:thenameofGod is used profusely without any signs of agnosticism. That God exists is obvious,andtheideathatHewouldnotisthoughttobetooweirdfor words. When I discussed a text on witchcraft with my friend Boamah, he first wanted to know whether I believed in ‘juju’ and ‘witchcraft’. IexplainedthatIdidnotknow:perhapstheyexisted,perhapstheydid not.Both were possible.Ithen addedthat he couldaswell have asked me whether I believed in God. He looked at me in surprise; to him it was unthinkable that someone would not believe. I found that same attitude during my conversations with Ou panyin Frempong. The old man swept away all ‘superstitions’ about ghosts and ancestors, but spoke about God as if He was sitting in the chair next to him. The research focused however on older people and not on religion. I never pursued the quest into agnosticism to find out whether the elders, when their philosophy was pressed, would apply the same rationalistprinciplestoGodastolifeafterdeath.Myonlypurposewas to explore how the older people looked at their approaching end. I foundthemtobesurprisinglyrealisticandrationalistic.Theyaccepted death as a natural and welcome completion of their life, while acknowledgingthattheyhadnoideawhatwouldhappentothemafter death. That agnostic stand worked in two directions: they did not subscribetopiousChristiansolutionsforlifeafterdeath,howeverpious theywere themselves, nor did theyentertain theother extreme, denial of the possibility of a continuation of some kind of existence. When Patrick confronted Mary Dedaa with the famous Highlife line, Onipa wu a, na wawu (if someone dies he is dead), she replied: ‘Onipa wu a, How older people in Ghana look forward to death 15 [ onwuye (if someone dies he is not yet dead), because after the death of some people, their children and grandchildren are protected from many troubles’. To simply say, ‘dead is dead’ was not acceptable to her either. Life after death When Patrick asked Ou panyin Frempong whether our way of living decides our fate after death, an interesting misunderstanding arose. Patrickheldacompletelydifferentconceptionof‘lifeafterdeath’than the old man, who firmly stuck to his ‘this world’ view, as when he answered: Yes.Thekindoflifeapersonleadscanhaveaneffectonhisoffspringafterhis death. If the fellow was good, his children will be blessed and have a lot of success, but if he was bad, a lot of evil can hit his offspring. It may be the children,thegrandchildrenoreventhegreatgrandchildren.Historyconfirms whatIsay;manypeopleenjoythefruitsofthegoodthingstheirparents did and others suffer because of their parents’ evil. The Bible also says, ‘I am a God who is jealous and I look upon later sons and generations who hate me with the evils of their fathers’. Afewmomentslater,hespokeofdeathandlifeitselfaspunishmentand reward: Some deaths are punishments to wrongdoers. When a person is doing much evil on earth, God can take him away to stop the wrongs he is committing againstothers.Suchadeathisapunishmenttothedead.Godcanalsoallow a good person to live longer, to serve as an example to others. Ou kyeame Opoku said a similar thing: ‘Some people are afraid because of their wrongdoings. The slightest illness worries them because they areafraidtheymaydiebecauseofthewrongtheyhavecommitted’.By keeping‘lifeafterdeath’amundaneaffair,namelythelifeofthosewho remain behind after the death of an older relative, our conversation partners were able to combine their agnostic realism with expressions oftheconceptthatis akeytounderstanding oldage: reciprocity. Death and what happens thereafter are tightly connected with people’s view of life as a matter of checks and balances, of giving and taking, of paying and being paid. As Opoku said, ‘There is a reward for everything you do, good or bad’. When he made remarks about the poor care allotted to some older or sick people which may hasten their death, I asked him under what circumstances such a thing would happen. He answered: ‘It depends 16 Sjaak Van Der Geest on the sort of life the sick person led before he became sick. A person who looked after his children very well will never experience such a thing. The children will do everything they can to make you comfortable till you die. But if you did not look after them, how can they take care of you when you are sick?’ Anotherformofreciprocitybecomesvisibleimmediatelyafterdeath, according again to Opoku. When Patrick asked him if after death a personwouldprofitfromthegoodthingshedidonearth,heanswered: ‘Yes:peopletowhomheshowedkindnessduringhislifewillattendhis funeralandhelphisrelativesbycontributingtowardsthefuneral’.The retributiontakesplacebeforedeath,indeathandafterdeath,although the system of ‘making accounts’ can differ. In Ou panyin Frempong’s view, children and grandchildren may have to pay for the wrongs of their parents and grandparents. After death, justice will also be renderedinanothersense.PatrickaskedOpokuforthemeaningofthe [ proverb, Se wowu ansa na wo hia ne wo sika dan adi (your money or your poverty becomes public after your death). He replied: Apersonmaylookquitewealthyduringhislifetime,butafterhisdeathpeople andbankswillstartaskingtheabusua[family]topaysomeofhisdebts.When he was alive, nobody knew he was poor. A person’s box is opened after his death by others, and whatever is inside is made public. It is possible that a person who many people thought to be very poor is found to be in the possession of riches. (Compare the proverb, Apo[nkyere[ne wu a, na wohu ne tenten–After the frog has died, you see how long it is). So far, people’s mundane, ‘this world’, and secularist perspectives on life after death have been highlighted, perhaps to excess. My account maygive a too ‘clear’ and ‘definitive’ picture of these popular beliefs. Alongside the quoted pronouncements, I also heard people saying more ambivalent things that carried suggestions of a life after death ‘somewhere else’. For example, after Opoku’s remark about con- tributing to the funeral as a reward for a good life, he continued: ‘If the person is a wrongdoer, he will be punished. He will not get the chance of going to God. He will be roaming, appearing to people and [ [ [ frightening them. We call such a person otofoo’. Uncertainty and contradictionare‘logical’whentalkingaboutdeathanditsaftermath. Ancestors Ancestors are addressed and referred to by the same term as that used ( for living grandparents: Nananom. The way in which this word is carriedovertheborderofdeathsuggestsacontinuednearnessandthe