FORTHCOMING IN ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT REVIEW MASTER OF PUPPETS: HOW NARCISSISTIC CEOS CONSTRUCT THEIR PROFESSIONAL WORLDS Arijit Chatterjee ESSEC Timothy G. Pollock Pennsylvania State University Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript. Order of authorship is alphabetical. We would like to thank Associate Editor Don Lange and three anonymous reviewers for their many helpful comments and suggestions. We would also like to thank Jon Bundy, Don Hambrick and Vilmos Misangyi for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. 1 MASTER OF PUPPETS: HOW NARCISSISTIC CEOS CONSTRUCT THEIR PROFESSIONAL WORLDS ABSTRACT We explore how narcissistic CEOs address two powerful and conflicting needs: the need for acclaim, and the need to dominate others. We argue that narcissistic CEOs address their need for acclaim by pursuing celebrity in the media and affiliating with high-status board members, and address their need to dominate others by employing lower-status, younger and less experienced TMT members who will be more deferential to and dependent on the narcissistic CEO. They manage each group differently through the use of different rewards, punishments and influence tactics. Our paper extends prior theory on CEO narcissism by exploring the mediating constructs that can link CEO narcissism and firm performance, offers a greater understanding of corporate governance by exploring how CEO personality traits influence governance structures, and demonstrates how a CEO’s personality characteristics can affect the acquisition of social approval assets. 2 “During his twenty-month stay at Scott, Dunlap generated more self-celebrating publicity than any other business executive in the world, with the possible exception of Microsoft’s Bill Gates.” “Other top executives at Sunbeam were fearful of Dunlap’s ‘torrential harangue,’ and ‘their knees trembled and stomachs churned.’” - Excerpted from “Chainsaw: The Notorious Career of Al Dunlap in the Era of Profit-at-any-price” (Byrne, 1999) Over the last fifty years chief executive officers (CEOs) have exerted greater and greater influence over their firms’ actions and performance (Quigley & Hambrick, 2015). In line with their increasing influence, scholars have shown a growing interest in how CEOs’ personality characteristics shape a variety of organizational outcomes (e.g., Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007, 2011; Hiller & Hambrick, 2005; Judge, LePine, & Rich, 2006; Resick, Whitman, Weingarden, & Hiller, 2009). One CEO personality trait in particular – narcissism – has received significant attention (e.g., Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007, 2011; Gerstner, König, Enders, & Hambrick, 2013; Judge et al., 2006; O’Reilly, Doerr, Caldwell, & Chatman, 2014; Peterson, Galvin, & Lange, 2012; Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006; Zhu & Chen, 2015a). These studies have focused on CEOs’ narcissistic behaviors1 and their influence on firm strategies, performance, executive compensation, and leadership style. When considering the relationship between CEO narcissism and these firm-level outcomes, prior research has tended to focus on the direct relationship (e.g., Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007, 2011; O’Reilly et al., 2014; Zhu & Chen, 2015a) without adequately theorizing about the mediating mechanisms and structures that link them. Some research has begun to look at the relationship between narcissism and leadership behaviors, and how these leadership behaviors influence performance (Grijalva, Harms, Newman, Gaddis, & Fraley, 2015; Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006). However, little attention has been given to how CEO narcissism affects the structure and management 1 Throughout this manuscript we use a number of examples that illustrate behaviors typically associated with narcissistic CEOs. Our intention is not to identify specific CEOs as narcissists, but to illustrate narcissistic behaviors. While the CEOs mentioned may or may not be narcissists based on clinical assessments, their behaviors that we describe are consistent with those expected from narcissistic CEOs. 3 of the board and top management team (TMT) (for a recent exception, see Zhu & Chen, 2015b), or external stakeholders like the media, which can all affect organizational outcomes, including firm performance (Bednar, 2012; Finkelstein, Hambrick, & Cannella Jr., 2009; Hayward, Rindova, & Pollock, 2004; Hillman & Dalziel, 2003; Westphal, 1999). We argue that these groups of actors may be managed in different ways to achieve different ends, and that they mediate the relationship between CEO narcissism and organizational outcomes. In other words, the ways in which narcissistic CEOs construct their professional worlds can affect firm performance. In developing our theory we focus on the two powerful and conflicting needs of narcissistic individuals that are illustrated in our opening quotations, and that largely guide narcissistic CEOs’ social interactions: 1) the need for acclaim and social approval; and 2) the need to dominate and control others. All prior research on narcissistic CEOs has observed that they have inflated opinions of their own capabilities and want their abilities and triumphs to be recognized by others (Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2011; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; Wallace & Baumeister, 2002). Who provides this social approval, however, has not been carefully considered. In addition to meeting narcissistic CEOs’ needs for acclaim, social approval can also create intangible assets such as status and celebrity (Fanelli, Misangyi, & Tosi, 2009; Pfarrer, Pollock, & Rindova, 2010) that provide additional outcomes narcissistic CEOs value, including higher compensation (Belliveau, O’Reilly, & Wade, 1996; Wade, Porac, Pollock, & Graffin, 2006), favorable media coverage (Fanelli et al., 2009), and prestigious board seats at other companies (Malmendier & Tate, 2009). At the same time, narcissistic CEOs want to dominate those around them and control decision making (Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007, 2011; Sedikides, Campbell, Reeder, Elliot, & Gregg, 2002; Zhu & Chen, 2015a). For example, CEO narcissism has a positive association with bold visions, but the narcissistic CEOs’ visions may not be aligned with their followers’ needs and aspirations (Galvin, 4 Waldman, & Balthazard, 2010). Narcissists are not nurturing or developmental, they lack empathy, and they develop superficial relationships they will willingly discard if the person no longer serves their purpose (Bradlee & Emmons, 1992; Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, & Biderman, 1984). These tendencies can make narcissistic CEOs difficult to work with and for, and can inhibit the social approval and acclaim they crave, putting these two needs in conflict with each other. Little research we are aware of has considered how narcissistic CEOs manage these competing drives. To explore this question we develop theory arguing that narcissistic CEOs meet their conflicting desires for acclaim and domination through the ways they structure and manage their professional worlds. We consider how narcissistic CEOs court journalists to gain celebrity, shape the status composition of their firms’ TMTs and boards of directors differently, and manage each group in ways that provide access to acclaim while also enhancing their ability to dominate decision making. In developing our theory we make three contributions. First, we offer a greater understanding of corporate governance by exploring how CEO personality traits influence governance structures and how they function. This is important because understanding how directors and TMT members are selected and retained (Acharya & Pollock, 2013; Boivie, Graffin, & Pollock, 2012; Carpenter & Westphal, 2001; Hillman & Dalziel, 2003; Westphal & Stern, 2007) and how they interact with the CEO (Westphal, 1998; Westphal & Khanna, 2003; Zhu & Chen, 2015a) can have significant consequences for firm performance. Theory on CEO motivations beyond simple assumptions about power and self-interest has thus far been limited. Second, we illustrate how theorizing about the relationship between CEO personality characteristics and firm-level outcomes needs to more carefully consider the mediating constructs through which this influence occurs, and how the motivations engendered by different personality 5 traits translate into executives’ behaviors and firms’ leadership structures. Third, we contribute to the literature on social approval assets by exploring how status and celebrity are related to and shaped by CEO personality traits. Despite decades of research, we know little about how executives’ personality traits shape their social approval assets. We show how CEO narcissism can influence their status, and illustrate how a CEO’s narcissistic tendencies lead to their pursuit of celebrity in the media. NARCISSISM Research on narcissism has a long and rich history. Narcissism was introduced in psychology by Havelock Ellis (1898) to describe people absorbed in self-admiration. Soon after, Sigmund Freud (1914/1957) argued that narcissistic individuals act out of a desire to strive for an ideal-self. Over the years, researchers have examined narcissism through different lenses, from treating it as a clinical disorder (Kohut, 1971) to a cultural trend (Lasch, 1979). In recent times, narcissism has become accepted as a personality trait on which all individuals can be arrayed (Vazire & Funder, 2006)2. Emmons (1987) identified four constituent factors of narcissism: (1) Leadership/ Authority; (2) Superiority/Arrogance; (3) Self-absorption/Self-admiration, and (4) Exploitativeness/Entitlement. While Emmons’s (1987) typology of factors works well for elaborating on narcissism in the general population, it has two limitations for our purposes. First, we are focusing only on CEOs, who by definition are in leadership positions, so this factor is less relevant in our context. Second, these four factors do not capture what Morf and Rhodewalt (2001:179) referred to as the “paradox” of narcissism: that narcissists have a grandiose yet vulnerable self-image. The grandiosity of their self- images leads narcissists to view themselves as superior to others, but its vulnerability leads them to 2 Although narcissism can be treated as a continuum, we focus our attention on individuals at the high end of the continuum and distinguish them from less narcissistic CEOs. Thus we refer to CEOs at the high end of the continuum as “narcissistic CEOs” and CEOs at lower levels of the continuum as “non-narcissistic CEOs.” This approach is consistent with prior research on CEO narcissism, as well as how narcissism is treated in psychoanalytical and clinical studies. Psychological studies, such as those we cite in this article, do not identify a specific point at which an individual becomes “a narcissist.” 6 nonetheless constantly crave the attention and admiration of those they believe to be inferior, and whose opinions should thus matter little to them. We argue that superiority/arrogance, self- absorption/self-admiration and exploitativeness/entitlement combine to create the two overarching drivers of narcissistic CEO’s behaviors: the need for acclaim, and the need to dominate decision making. The Need for Acclaim According to Goffman (1959), individuals attempt to establish and maintain impressions congruent with the perceptions they want to convey to others. From this perspective, the public self, or “the self that is manifested in the presence of others” (Baumeister, 1986: v), is formed by an interaction between how individuals present themselves to others and the traits and dispositions others attribute to them. The public self, then, is a combination of how an individual intends others to perceive him or her (which may be different than their private perceptions of themselves) and of others’ actual perceptions. For example, a non-narcissistic CEO may have a “heroic” public self but a more “humble” private self that is based on modest family roots or other life experiences. For most individuals their private and public selves are distinct; however, narcissists often adopt privately the image they display publicly. In other words, the narcissist’s ideal public self has a “carry-over effect” (Baumeister, 1986: 88) to his or her private self, and the public and private selves become indistinguishable in the narcissist’s mind. This is in part why acclaim is so important to narcissists: it validates their private as well as public selves. As we noted earlier, narcissism is characterized by grandiosity, self-focus, and self-importance (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). As a result, narcissists consider themselves superior to others with respect to such qualities as intelligence, extraversion, and openness to experience (Resick et al., 2009); are extremely confident of their capabilities (Campbell, Rudich, & Sedikides, 2002; Gabriel, Critelli, & 7 Ee, 1994); and rate themselves highly on leadership qualities and contextual performance (Judge et al., 2006) irrespective of their actual performance (Raskin, Novacek, & Hogan, 1991). At the same time, narcissists have a very vulnerable self-image (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001) and want others to recognize and validate these self-perceptions. Thus, while narcissists engage in a great deal of self-admiration, they also have a strong need for external reinforcement, or “narcissistic supply” (Kernberg, 1975: 17). Public acclaim of their leadership and accomplishments provides this narcissistic supply, reinforcing their self-image. Because narcissists need people who will applaud and cheer for them, they are especially drawn to situations that enhance the likelihood they will receive public adulation (Wallace & Baumeister, 2002). They derive utility from the acclaim that comes from taking bold and spectacular actions, and their expected utility is even greater if respected people are watching (Horton & Sedikides, 2009). Even the promise of public praise incites narcissists to take impulsive and risky actions (Campbell, Goodie, & Foster, 2004). For this reason narcissists perform better during crises; when others are watching them perform; and when their actions are diagnostic, or can be easily singled out by others (Wallace & Baumeister, 2002). In addition, narcissists also routinely – and perhaps excessively – engage in social comparison with others (Bogart, Benotsch, & Pavlovic, 2004), pursuing with fervor the goal of obtaining continuous external affirmation of their relative superiority (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). Two factors underlie the intensity with which narcissists dwell on how strong (or weak) they are vis-à-vis others. First, narcissists are sensitive to cues capturing comparisons with others, and to self-relevant social information (Krizan & Bushman, 2011). Second, narcissists maintain simple cognitive representations of themselves; since their public and private selves are indistinguishable, success or failure in their dominant identity spills over to other domains in their lives (Emmons, 1987: 15). Rather than treating 8 them as the outcomes of their decisions and behaviors, negative evaluations are construed as personal defects and positive evaluations are attributed to the narcissist’s personal qualities (Tracy & Robins, 2004). Narcissists therefore experience excessive pride after positive feedback and considerable distress when feedback is negative (Tracy & Robins, 2004), and as we will discuss, are similarly excessive in their subsequent reactions. The Need to Dominate Decision Making Narcissistic CEOs’ sense of superiority and arrogance also combine with their exploitativeness and entitlement to influence their interactions with others (Emmons, 1987). Narcissists believe they should dominate and control decision making; because they believe their knowledge and experience are superior to others, it follows (at least in their minds) that their decisions should thus lead to the best outcomes (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Zhu & Chen, 2015a). At the same time, narcissists have a lower need for intimacy, are less empathetic, and have less gratitude for their co-workers (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, & Biderman, 1984), which makes it easier to be comfortable exploiting and dominating others. As such, they do not actively nurture others, and often lack communal traits like cooperation and affiliation (Bradlee & Emmons, 1992). For example, a recent New York Times article (Schwartz, 2015) bemoaned the bad behavior of visionary leaders Steve Jobs, Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos, noting “how little care and appreciation any of them give (or in Mr. Jobs’s case, gave) to hard-working and loyal employees, and how unnecessarily cruel and demeaning they could be to the people who helped make their dreams come true.” Al Dunlap’s willingness to fire employees without regard for their past contributions as he restructured Scott Paper, and later Sunbeam, and the way he relished the epithet “Chainsaw Al” offers another vivid example (Byrne, 1999). 9 This does not mean that narcissists are always abusive and domineering. Indeed, narcissists can also use charm and self-presentation techniques as a means of influence (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2010; Dufner, Rauthmann, Czarna, & Denissen, 2013; Vazire, Naumann, Rentfrow, & Gosling, 2008). In addition, others tend to find their extraversion and self-confidence enjoyable, at least at first (Back et al., 2010; Grijalva et al., 2015). For example, in describing how Al Dunlap managed opinion leaders, Byrne (1999:300) noted, “He captivated the media and Wall Street because he sounded refreshingly candid and honest. His witty one-liners, collected and rehearsed and repeated over and over again, nevertheless seemed original and fresh.” However, when their self-images are disputed or threatened, narcissists tend to become angry and aggressive (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1998), which can lead to personal attacks, scapegoating and other blame- deflecting behaviors (Kernis & Sun, 1994). We argue that the needs for acclaim and to dominate decision making can be in conflict, as those who feel dominated and are treated callously are unlikely to praise narcissistic CEOs and grant them the acclaim the desire, and they can also undermine narcissistic CEOs’ efforts to gain acclaim from others. As we will discuss, narcissistic CEOs manage these conflicting pressures by structuring and managing different groups in different ways. Further, because narcissists focus on the pursuit of social approval in the workplace and beyond, constructs grounded in social approval such as status (Packard, 1959) and celebrity (Gamson, 1994; Hayward et al., 2004; Rein, Kottler, & Stoller, 1987) will be very important to them. Research has shown that narcissistic CEOs affect firm performance (Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007), but we believe there are several unspecified mediators of this relationship that need elaboration. In the next section, we work from outside the organization in and explain how CEOs’ narcissism and their dual needs for acclaim and domination affect their pursuit of celebrity in the 10