Growing Up “Gringo” How Immigrant and Second Generation Youth Navigate Their Transitions to Adulthood in a Small Town, New Immigrant Destination Alexis Silver A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Sociology. Chapel Hill 2011 Approved by: Jacqueline M. Hagan Ted Mouw Barbara Entwisle Michael J. Shanahan Robert C. Smith ©2011 Alexis Silver ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT ALEXIS SILVER: Growing Up “Gringo”: How Immigrant and Second Generation Youth Navigate Their Transitions to Adulthood in a Small Town, New Immigrant Destination (Under the Direction of Jacqueline M. Hagan and Ted Mouw) My dissertation examines incorporation patterns for immigrant and second generation Latina/o youths in a small town, new immigrant destination in the rural South. Previous studies have explored the pathway to adulthood for children of immigrants coming of age in metropolitan areas and traditional migrant destinations, but scholars know little about this process for adolescents in small towns and new migrant destinations. This ethnographic study was conducted between 2007 and 2011 in a small community in central North Carolina where half of the population is Hispanic, and 75 percent of the adult Hispanic population is foreign-born. Between 1990 and 2008, North Carolina saw a 508 percent increase in its population of children of immigrants. Recognizing the importance of this demographic shift, my research engages directly with a North Carolina community that has been transformed by Latina/o immigration. My research examines the influences of immigration status and gender on the incorporation of Latina/o children of immigrants. Additionally, I explore race relations within a high school and examine how race and ethnicity influence students‟ access to formal and informal opportunity structures within the school. iii To all of the youths who shared their stories with me, and to all of the teachers and coaches who helped them believe in a brighter future. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the extensive support of many remarkable people. I must first acknowledge all of my interview participants who shared with me their experiences, reflections, frustrations and hopes. I feel incredibly privileged that these individuals trusted me enough to open up their lives to me. I also express my deepest gratitude to my incredible advisors, Jacqueline Hagan and Ted Mouw. Their extensive and thoughtful critiques strengthened my research and writing considerably, and I will never be able to repay them for their intellectual and emotional support throughout my graduate school career. Jackie opened up her heart and her home to me, helping me build professional connections, listening to several versions of my job talk, reading countless chapter drafts, and offering invaluable feedback on my field research and analysis – all while making me laugh. Ted ignited my love for immigration research and social demography, deepened my intellectual curiosity by challenging me to think about my research from new angles, and was often the only person that could calm me down when stress got the better of me. Their guidance nurtured my professional and intellectual development, and I cannot thank them enough. Each of my committee members also provided amazingly helpful feedback that shaped the final version of this project. Barbara Entwisle, Robert Smith and Michael Shanahan all offered thoughtful critiques and suggestions. I am extremely grateful for their time, guidance, and advice. v I would also like to thank and acknowledge Paul Cuadros for his support throughout my dissertation. He has been an amazing example of an engaged professor. His tireless efforts to fight for social justice at the state level as well as within his own personal networks are awe-inspiring. He is one of the kindest people I know, and he has become one of the people I most admire. UNC was an amazing place to begin my career in academia, and I am indebted to all of the people here who helped nurture my professional and intellectual development. In addition to Jackie Hagan, Ted Mouw, Barbara Entwisle, Michael Shanahan, and Paul Cuadros, I would like to acknowledge the entire faculty and staff of the Sociology Department. In particular, Philip Cohen and Lisa Pearce provided mentorship and advice on earlier presentations of this research. Beatriz Riefkohl Muñiz and Hannah Gill at the Institute for the Study of the Americas both inspired and challenged me to think about my research from different perspectives. Beatriz, Hannah, Louis Pérez, and Shelley Clarke were unbelievably supportive during a very challenging time and I could not imagine a better work environment than the one they created at ISA. My time in graduate school would not have been the same if it were not for the incredible friends and colleagues that I made throughout my time at UNC. I learned as much from my friends as any of my classes, and I am so thankful for them. Mairead Moloney went beyond all expectations in terms of offering me feedback on this dissertation, and assuring me that my temporary dissertation-induced insanity was completely normal. Her amazing editing skills resurrected two of my dissertation chapters from certain demise and I am so grateful for her time and effort. Ria Van Ryn was my support system from my first day here, and I am so happy that we have been able vi to share every milestone of graduate school together. I am also grateful for the input and friendships of Vanesa Ribas, Amy Lucas, Beth Latshaw, Youn OK Lee, Kristin Gibson, and Ashton Verdery. I am lucky to be in a community of supportive and active young migration scholars, and I would like to thank Helen Marrow and Kara Cebulko especially for their feedback on this project. I would also like to thank my friends outside of academia for their perspective and support. Natalia Weedy, Laura Petrolle and Hernan Vega in particular helped me survive the dissertation and shared in my celebration when it was over. Finally, I must thank my family for their endless encouragement. They too helped edit earlier versions of dissertation chapters, and most importantly showed me love and patience while I struggled through the final stages of this dissertation. I am incredibly fortunate to come from a family that has always believed in me and my education. As I spoke with youths who struggled against closed doors and limited opportunities, I frequently reflected on my own good fortune. I am grateful to have parents who were willing and able to help open so many doors for me. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1. FRAMEWORK, MOTIVATIONS, AND OBJECTIVES……………………….. 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 1 Background Literature…………………………………………………………… 3 Research Site, Research Design and Study Sample……………………………… 8 Trajectories Out of High School in Study Sample……………………………… 13 Overview of Papers……………………………………………………………... 15 Limitations……………………………………………………………………… 18 References………………………………………………………………………. 19 2. AGING INTO EXCLUSION AND SOCIAL TRANSPARENCY: UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANT YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD………………………………………. 24 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………. 24 Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 25 Background Literature………………………………………………………….. 28 Research Site, Research Design and Study Sample…………………………….. 33 Findings………………………………………………………………………… 39 Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………………... 50 References………………………………………………………………………. 54 3. GENDERED REFLECTIONS: CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANTS NEGOTIATE THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD………………………………………. 60 viii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………. 60 Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 61 Background Literature………………………………………………………….. 63 Research Site, Research Design and Study Sample…………………………….. 73 Findings………………………………………………………………………… 78 Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………………... 94 References……………………………………………………………………... 101 4. FRIENDS AND NEIGHBORS: INTERGROUP INTERACTIONS IN A DIVERSE NEW SOUTH HIGH SCHOOL…………………………………... 106 Abstract………………………………………………………………………... 106 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 107 Background Literature………………………………………………………… 110 Research Site, Research Design and Study Sample…………………………… 124 Findings……………………………………………………………………….. 129 Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………………. 148 References……………………………………………………………………... 155 5. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………... 163 Luz‟s Story…………………………………………………………………….. 163 Theoretical Contribution………………………………………………………. 167 Inclusion and Exclusion in the Small Town South……………………………. 179 References……………………………………………………………………... 184 APPENDIX: Pathways out of High School…………………………………………… 186 ix CHAPTER 1 FRAMEWORK, MOTIVATIONS, AND OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION The vice principal of the school walked to the podium and began to address the graduating seniors in both English and Spanish. He urged the students, „Enjoy this moment as it is the only high school graduation that you will ever have. It is also the last graduation that some of you will have at all. Some of you will be going on to college. Some of you will be going to join the army. Some of you will be going to work. Whatever you do, make sure that you take pride in whatever path you decide to take.‟ ~Field notes: June 13, 2009 All of the speakers at the graduation ceremony spoke with pride about the diversity in the school. The continual touting of diversity throughout the ceremony stood out in sharp contrast to the political climate for immigrants, and particularly undocumented immigrants, in North Carolina. Coming of age in the South where the word “immigrant” often hit newspapers and nightly news broadcasts along with the word “illegal,” children of immigrants could not avoid hearing stereotypes of Hispanic1 immigrants as illegals, criminals, and economic burdens. For Latino/a adolescents and 1 In accordance with publications by the Pew Hispanic Center, I use the terms “Latina/o” and “Hispanic” interchangeably. I use the terms “second generation immigrants” to refer to children born in the United States to immigrant parents. I use to terms “immigrant children” and “1.5 generation immigrants” to refer to adolescents who are immigrants themselves but who have grown up in the United States since they were children under the age of thirteen. I use the term “children of immigrants” to refer to all children of immigrant parents, regardless of whether they themselves are immigrants or U.S.-born. I also use the terms “African American” and “black” interchangeably. When I refer to a respondent through a hyphenated descriptor such as “Mexican- American,” I am using this hyphenated descriptor to indicate that this person was born in the United States to Mexican immigrant parents. When I refer to the “child population” of the U.S., this population includes all individuals younger than 18 years old.