HOUSEHOLD FOOD ACCESS SECURITY ALONG THE URBAN-RURAL CONTINUUM IN MOROGORO AND IRINGA, TANZANIA UBALDUS JOHN TUMAINI A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPY OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE. MOROGORO, TANZANIA. 2017 ii EXTENDED ABSTRACT The study on which this manuscript is based was done along the urban-rural continuum (urban, peri-urban and rural) in Morogoro and Iringa to assess household food access security. Specifically, the study sought to: (1) assess the prevalence of household food access insecurity along the urban-rural continuum, (2) determine constraints to household food access security, (3) examine coping strategies and resilience to food access insecurity along the continuum, and (4) assess the influence of households’ asset ownership on food access security. A cross-sectional research design with a three-stage sampling technique was employed whereby data were collected in 279 households from November 2015 to April 2016. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The results showed that food access insecurity was more prevalent among rural households as compared among their counterparts in urban and peri-urban settings (p ≤ 0.001). Also, findings showed great variations in constraints to food access security, food access insecurity coping strategies and household asset ownership along the continuum. Using a binary logistic regression model, it was found that a household head’s education and number of members earning income had a positive relationship with a household’s food access security (p ≤ 0.05), whereas household size (β = -0.408; p ≤ 0.01), proportion of consumption expenditure on food (β = -0.151; p ≤ 0.001), and reliance on donations (β = -3.770; p ≤ 0.01) were inversely related with a household’s food access security. It is thus concluded that the prevalence of and constraints to household food access security as well as food access coping strategies and asset ownership vary among households along the continuum. Additionally, as household head’s education and number of household members earning income increase a household’s food access security improves. On the other hand, large households, higher proportions of consumption expenditure on food and reliance on donations tend to worsen iii a household’s food access security. It is, therefore, recommended that households should focus more on assets that improve their food access security and control those factors that weaken food access security. iv DECLARATION I, Ubaldus John Tumaini, do hereby declare to the Senate of Sokoine University of Agriculture that this thesis is my own original work done within the period of registration and that it has neither been submitted nor being concurrently submitted in any other institution. __________________ ________________ Ubaldus John Tumaini Date (PhD Candidate) The above declaration is confirmed by: _____________________ _________________ Prof. John M. Msuya Date (Supervisor) v COPYRIGHT No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means without prior written permission of the author or Sokoine University of Agriculture in that behalf. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I wish to thank the Almighty God for many blessings in my life. I also owe thanks to the College of Business Education (CBE), which granted me a study leave and financial support especially during year two and three of my PhD programme. I am grateful to the Volkswagen Foundation for partially financing this study. I wish to give a big thank you to my supervisor Prof. Msuya of the Department of Food Technology, Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA). His encouragement and support were a big boost for me to undertake the PhD programme. In the College of Social Sciences and Humanities (CSSH), I would like to specifically thank Prof. Justin K. Urassa, Prof. Kim A. Kayunze, and Dr. John V. Msinde for their kindness, readiness to listen, help or give advice whenever I consulted them. I also extend thanks to all staff and my fellow PhD candidates in the Department of Development Studies (DDS) for their cooperation and encouragement during the entire study period. My heartfelt thanks go to the people and the leaders of Morogoro and Iringa regions and in particular to the households who participated in the study. Their responses allowed me to document some sensitive information related to household food access situation. Their contribution and hospitality are highly appreciated. I extend my sincere thanks to Mr. Titus H. Mkemwa for his invaluable efforts during the data collection activity. I wish to convey my sincere gratitude to my parents, brothers and sisters and in-laws who have always prayed and wished me good health and luck throughout this period. vii I acknowledge the kind assistance and support of my colleagues at CBE; in particular to Dr. Emmanuel J. Munishi, and Mr. Frank T. Mmbando; for their encouragement and support. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my loving wife Rufina, my daughters Hedwig Zawadi and Maureen Furaha for their encouragement, support, and understanding of my long absence from home when I was pursuing the PhD programme. viii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late beloved brother Conrad Amani John Mfoi who passed away before the dreams of this work could be realised; to my loving wife Rufina and my daughters Hedwig and Maureen for their love and tireless support and understanding of my long absence from home. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS EXTENDED ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... ii DECLARATION..................................................................................................................... iv COPYRIGHT ........................................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... vi DEDICATION....................................................................................................................... viii TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ ix LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ xiv LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................ xv LIST OF APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... xvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... xvii CHAPTER ONE....................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Conceptualization of ‘Urban-Rural Continuum’ Concept ........................................... 4 1.3 Food Security and its Dimensions ................................................................................. 7 1.4 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................... 9 1.5 Justification for the Study ............................................................................................ 11 1.6 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 12 1.6.1 General objective ........................................................................................... 12 1.6.2 Specific objectives ......................................................................................... 12 1.7 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 12 1.8 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................ 13 1.8.1 Multi-layered Social Resilience Framework................................................ 13 x 1.8.2 Sen’s Entitlement theory of famine .............................................................. 15 1.9 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................ 18 1.10 Organization of the Thesis ........................................................................................... 20 1.11 Study Limitations ......................................................................................................... 21 References ............................................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 29 2.0 Prevalence and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Households Food Access Insecurity along the Urban-Rural Households in Morogoro and Iringa, Tanzania .. 29 2.1 Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 29 2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 30 2.3 Urban-Rural Continuum in Morogoro and Iringa ...................................................... 32 2.4 Defining Urban-Rural Continuum............................................................................... 33 2.5 Socio-economic Characteristics of Households and Food Security .......................... 34 2.6 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 35 2.6.1 Description of the study area ........................................................................ 35 2.6.2 Research design and sampling procedure .................................................... 36 2.6.3 Data collection ............................................................................................... 37 2.6.4 Data analysis .................................................................................................. 38 2.7 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................. 39 2.7.1 Household Demographic Characteristics ..................................................... 40 2.7.2 Main economic occupations.......................................................................... 41 2.7.3 Household food access along the urban-rural continuum ........................... 42 2.7.4 Household socio-economic features and food access security ................... 42 2.8 Conclusions and Recommendations............................................................................ 44 References ............................................................................................................................... 46