Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 1 Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? Abstract Terms such as “rags to riches,” “Horatio Alger,“ and pulling one’s self up by one’s “own bootstraps” are important to American self-identity. Several analyses, however, show social and economic mobility in the United States is in trouble. It is less frequent than in past generations, the U. S. now trails many nations in measures of movement, and one mechanism of mobility, education, is losing its effectiveness in that regard. The researcher conducts a content analysis regarding social mobility terms in transcripts from NBC Nightly News, CBS Evening News, ABC World News, MSNBC and Fox News. By various measures U. S. TV news almost exclusively presented unchallenged the mythology of mobility, rather than any debunking of it. What little debunking occurred largely was on MSNBC. Both MSNBC and Fox frequently presented social and economic mobility (and persons who are examples of it) in partisan terms, while network TV newscasts did not. Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 2 Rags-to-riches stories are woven into the narrative of American greatness. Pulling one’s self up by one’s own bootstraps often is the phrase used both to encourage and to exalt this phenomenon. The rags-to-riches theme was so common in the popular stories by Horatio Alger, Jr., that the author’s name itself is now shorthand for the theme. Yet, for the all theme repetition, the actual rate of social and economic mobility, by almost any measure tracked, has been declining in the United States for several decades. Thus, U. S. journalism faces a conundrum. Does it follow society’s meta-narratives of story telling, the master myths of news as described by Lule (2001)? Or, does journalistic content “prick the bubble” of the myth, pointing out its unlikelihood and its declining probability? The challenge is particularly acute for broadcast news with its traditions of short, simple, visual, and emotional storytelling. Print, web, and broadcast news all can and do employ a compelling case study technique as a way to personalize and to demonstrate an issue. Broadcast news, however, may lack the time or depth to muddy the matter with counter-thematic questions of scale, scope, and trends. Literature Review The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2010) examined established intergenerational mobility measures, such as father-to- Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 3 son earnings and education, and concluded, “Mobility in earnings, wages and education across generations is relatively low in France, southern European countries, the United Kingdom and the United States. By contrast, such mobility tends to be higher in Australia, Canada and the Nordic countries.” The OECD findings echo work by Corak (2004, 2006) and Jäntti et al (2006). Isaacs, Sawhill, and Haskins (2008) compiled a report on economic mobility for The Brookings Institution. It demonstrated, “All Americans do not have an equal shot at getting ahead, and one’s chances are largely dependent on one’s parents’ economic position…The chances of making it to the top of the income distribution decline steadily as one’s parents’ family income decreases” (p. 19). Most quintile-to-quintile motion is in the middle of the family income scale; the poor and rich have the highest likelihood of staying in that position. Further, increased inequality of income distribution in the U. S. means that “since the rungs of the ladder are further apart than they used to be, the effects of family background on one’s ultimate economic success are larger and may persist for a longer period of time” (p. 32). The report also noted that the U. S. falls in the mid-range of international mobility measures, and the lowest mobility rates were clustered at the bottom of the U.S. income ladder. “The findings from cross-country research challenge the traditional view of the United States as a land with more mobility and opportunity than other countries,” concluded the report (pp. 41-42). While bottom quintile to top quintile hopping is highly unlikely in a generation, storied and extreme rags-to-riches stories are even more rare. Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 4 Hertz (2006) found that children from low-income families have only a one percent chance of reaching the top five percent of income distribution. Children in the middle quintile did not fare much better, just a 1.8 percent likelihood of reaching that same high-income group. By contrast, the children of the upper strata had a 22 percent rate of reaching the top five percent of income. Hertz further found that the U.S. trailed France, Germany, Sweden, Canada, Finland, Norway, and Denmark in intergenerational mobility. Only the United Kingdom had less class mobility than the United States among similar high-income countries. The “rungs farther apart” phenomenon also has been growing worse. Sawhill and Morton (2008) point out there has been no income advancement, adjusted for inflation, for the younger generations. In fact, men in their thirties as a group have on average 12 percent less income than their fathers’ generation at the same age. “This suggests the up- escalator that has historically endured that each generation would do better than the last may not be working very well,” they wrote. Michael Moore (2003) penned a devastating critique of the Horatio Alger myth as a key factor regarding ineffective public action against CEO abuses. He wrote: It is first prescribed to us as children in the form of a fairy tale—but a fairy tale that can actually come true! It is the Horatio Alger myth. Alger was one of the most popular Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 5 American writers of the late 1800s. His stories featured characters from impoverished backgrounds who, through pluck and determination and hard work, were able to make huge successes of themselves in this land of boundless opportunity. The message was that anyone can make it in America, and make it big. We are addicted to this happy rags-to-riches myth in this country…. Despite all the damage and all the evidence to the contrary, the average American still wants to hand on to this belief that maybe, just maybe, he or she (mostly he) just might make it big after all. So don’t attack the rich man, because one day that rich man may be me! The Horatio Alger/Own Bootstraps/Rags to Riches Myth certainly has a strong presence in public opinion. Pew (2009) asked respondents to rate on a zero-to-ten scale about how well statements described the American Dream. “Being able to succeed regardless of the economic circumstances in which you were born” scored a perfect ten with 34% of respondents, and another 26% giving it an eight or nine. Similarly, the statement “your children being better off financially than you” scored ten with 35% of respondents, and eight or nine with another 29%. Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 6 CBS News / New York Times several times has asked poll respondents, “Do you think it’s still possible to start out poor in this country, work hard, and become rich?” Date Possible Not Don’t N Possible Know April 22-26, 1981* 67 28 3 1439 January 16-19, 1983 57 38 5 1597 July 31-August 3, 1988 ** 59 35 6 1353 February 22-24, 1996 70 27 3 1223 March 20-21, 1996 78 18 4 1001 April 15-20, 1998 (NYT) 70 29 2 1395 February 6-10, 2000 84 13 3 1499 July 13, 2003 (Hispanic 70 27 3 3092 oversample) June 26-28, 2007 81 18 1 836 April 1-5, 2009 72 24 4 998 * Alternate wording: Do you think it's possible nowadays for someone in this country to start out poor, and become rich by working hard? Two percent volunteered it was possible through other means. ** Alternate wording: Do you think it’s as possible now as it was when you finished school to start out poor in this country, work hard, and become rich? Of course, as McNamee and Miller (2004, p. 11) have pointed out, “the mere possibility of getting rich is not the same as the likelihood of getting Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 7 rich.” They further point out that that meritorious personal characteristics such as talent and hard work certainly play a role in social and economic mobility, but these traits themselves have social origins. High moral standards, they note, can work against such mobility. “It is not innate capacity alone, or the proper frame of mind alone that makes a difference. Rather it is a combination of opportunity and these factors that make a difference” (p. 45). Several researchers (Hertz 2006; Haskins, 2008) have noted the importance of education as a means to achieve social mobility. Recent numbers, however, suggest that road hardly is a meritocracy. The U.S. Department of Education in 1988 began a longitudinal study of students then in 8th grade, following them for 12 years. A notable pattern could be found in the data about college graduation. Those who in 1988 were in the lowest quartile of family income but the top quartile of math test scores had a 29 percent college graduation rate. The inverse, top quartile of family income but bottom quartile of math scores, had a 30 percent college graduation rate (Roy, 2005). Ornstein (2007) adds that such opportunities are shrinking, leaving meritocracy a hollow shell or a false promise: A new form of arrogance can develop by the creation of meritocracy, by the same people who once believed in and exemplified the political theories of Jeffersonian democracy and Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 8 the stories of Horatio Alger. If true merit becomes associated with heredity or innate ability, as it is often construed, as opposed to the notion of opportunity, [then] meritocracy becomes less of a virtue and more of a propaganda tool for patricians and conservatives to wave and use against the populace who have fewer opportunities because of their social and economic status. One really cannot cover class mobility without mentioning the subject of class, and television news does not have a good record in this regard. Heider and Fuse (2004) conducted a combined content analysis and participant observation study of Denver local television news in July 1998. Newscast producers and reporters well understood the desired audience for their program was suburban women aged 25 to 54. Though class rarely was stated, this targeted demographic played a key role in news gatekeeping decisions. The poor simply weren’t “on the radar” of local television news, and only 1.9 percent of all stories during the study period were about the needy. Lule’s “Master Myths of News” draws inspiration from: Mircea Eliade, philosopher and historian of religion, who saw myth as quintessentially human; Joseph Campbell who found myth ubiquitous; and Jung who saw myth as essential. Lule readily admits the claim can be overstated—a house fire story can be just a house fire story—but he argues that news has habits, Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 9 traditions, and shortcuts that all draw from the human traditions of storytelling. After all, news people do refer to their output as stories, not just reports. Lule discerns seven master myths in news. One from his list, The Hero, is quite pervasive and includes elements of success and social mobility: Heroes remind people that they can succeed, that they can achieve greatness. Hercules, Karna, Gilgamesh, Ulysses, Achilles, and Samson are just a few heroes whose exploits are celebrated in myth. Heroes also subtly offer limitations by telling stories of who can succeed and how. As myth, news stories too regularly celebrate the exploits of heroes. From sports stars to movie stars, astronauts to artists, presidents to prime ministers, the news tells stories of heroic men and women. The news produces and reproduces the timeless pattern: the humble birth, the early mark of greatness, the quest, the triumph, and the return. The news daily brings us stories of the Hero, stories that proclaim—but also help define—greatness (p. 23). Do U. S. newscasts tell us such heroic stories, but ignore the reality of declining social mobility? One complicating factor in answering that question is the increasing political polarization of continuous (“24/7”) cable news Horatio Alger is Dying: Has TV News Noticed? p. 10 operations. Fox News has a documented and deserved pro-Republican and pro-conservative slant (Groeling and Baum, 2007), and conservative viewers seek it out for that reason (Iyengar and Hahn, 2009). MSNBC recently has offered, at least in its prime-time programs, a contrary point of view. Hypotheses and Research Questions Research Question One asks what picture of social and economic mobility will U. S. television news programs present? The past observations strongly suggest that U. S. television news will tilt strongly toward repetition of the mythology rather than any questioning of it. The political polarization of the 24/7 cable news operations allows for the testing of two hypotheses: Hypothesis One: Stories from the 24/7 cable news operations Fox News and MSNBC will be more likely than stories from the network newscasts (CBS Evening, NBC Nightly, and ABC World) to invoke and involve political parties in the text of social and economic mobility stories. Hypothesis Two: Among the 24/7 cable news operations, Fox News will do the least amount of myth debunking, will MSNBC will do the most myth debunking. Methods