Hogan Personality Inventory Manual Acknowledgements Over the last three years, a number of people have assisted us in the revisions of the Hogan Personality Inventory. The HPI would never have reached its level of development without their contributions and it is a pleasure to acknowledge them. At Hogan Assessment Systems, John Thompson programmed all test materials and data bases; he computed the statistical results that appear in the manual. Various data sets were collected by Scott Gregory, John Morrison, Todd Murtha, Arvids Petersons, Brent Smith and Darryl Stark. P. Doody, M. Gooch, and B. Dings provided other valuable assistance along the way. We are especially indebted to colleagues who gave us benefit of their ideas on conceptual and technical issues. These include Gordon Curphy, Marvin Dunnette, Lewis Goldberg, Harrison Gough, Allan Harkness, Leaetta Hough, John Johnson, Auke Tellegen, Mark Schmit, and Jerry Wiggins. At the University of Tulsa, Judy McHenry produced the written material, including design, layout, and graphics. We are grateful to all of these people for their assistance. Robert Hogan Joyce Hogan Tulsa 1992 Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Conceptual Background...........................................................................1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1 What to Measure ............................................................................................................1 The Five Factor Model ....................................................................................................2 How to Measure Personality ........................................................................................................3 How to Build a Scale .......................................................................................................4 Item Response Dynamics ..............................................................................................4 Socioanalytic Theory ......................................................................................................5 The Inevitability of the Five Factor Model ........................................................................5 A Viewpoint on Measurement .........................................................................................6 Traditional Objections to Personality Assessment ......................................................................7 Response Sets ...............................................................................................................7 Response Styles ............................................................................................................7 Summary ....................................................................................................................................8 Chapter 2 - Inventory Construction ............................................................................9 Early Development ......................................................................................................................9 Later Development ....................................................................................................................10 Definitions of the Scales ...........................................................................................................12 Composition of the Personality Scales .....................................................................................13 Chapter 3 - Validity .................................................................................................... 19 Correlations with other Tests .....................................................................................................20 Adjustment ....................................................................................................................21 Ambition ........................................................................................................................26 Sociability ......................................................................................................................27 Likeability ......................................................................................................................28 Prudence ......................................................................................................................28 Intellectance ..................................................................................................................29 School Success ...........................................................................................................30 Correlations between the HPI and Peer Descriptions ...............................................................31 HPI Correlates of Organizational Behavior ................................................................................34 Emotional Stability Factor: Adjustment .........................................................................35 Surgency Factor: Ambition and Sociability ...................................................................36 Agreeableness Factor: Likeability .................................................................................36 Conscientiousness Factor: Prudence ..........................................................................37 Culture Factor: Intellectance and School Success .......................................................37 Chapter 4 - Interpreting and Using the HPI ........................................................... 39 How to Interpret the HPI ............................................................................................................39 Scale by Scale Interpretation .....................................................................................................39 Validity ...........................................................................................................................39 Adjustment ....................................................................................................................40 Ambition ........................................................................................................................41 Sociability ......................................................................................................................41 Likeability ......................................................................................................................42 Prudence ......................................................................................................................42 Intellectance ..................................................................................................................43 School Success ...........................................................................................................43 Syndromes ................................................................................................................................43 Delinquency ..................................................................................................................43 The Hollow Core ...........................................................................................................44 Arrogance .....................................................................................................................44 Creativity .......................................................................................................................44 Sales ............................................................................................................................45 Management .................................................................................................................45 Sample Profile Interpretations ...................................................................................................46 A Realistic Profile ..........................................................................................................46 An Investigative Profile ..................................................................................................47 An Artistic Profile...........................................................................................................48 A Social Profile .............................................................................................................49 An Enterprising Profile ..................................................................................................50 A Conventional Profile ...................................................................................................51 Ideal Uses of the HPI .................................................................................................................51 Career Counseling and Individualized Assessment .....................................................51 Personnel Selection ......................................................................................................52 Placement ....................................................................................................................54 Promotion .....................................................................................................................54 Succession Planning ....................................................................................................54 Summary ..................................................................................................................................54 Chapter 5 - Administering and Scoring .................................................................... 55 How to Administer Paper and Pencil HPI Forms.......................................................................55 Materials .......................................................................................................................55 Completing the Answer Sheet ......................................................................................55 Conducting the Testing Session ...................................................................................55 Administrator’s Script for Conducting a Testing Session..............................................57 How to Administer Computer On-Line Testing ..........................................................................59 Materials .......................................................................................................................59 Using the On-line System .............................................................................................59 How to Score the HPI Answer Sheets .......................................................................................60 Keyed Data Entry ..........................................................................................................60 Optical Scanning of Answer Sheets .............................................................................60 Mail-in or FAX Scoring ...................................................................................................60 Testing Disabled Individuals ..........................................................................................61 Chapter 6 - Occupational Scales and Validation Research ................................... 63 Introduction ................................................................................................................................63 Description of the Occupational Scales ....................................................................................64 Service Orientation Scale .............................................................................................64 Stress Tolerance Scale ................................................................................................65 Reliability Scale ............................................................................................................69 Clerical Potential Scale .................................................................................................70 Sales Potential Scale ....................................................................................................71 Managerial Potential Scale............................................................................................72 How to Conduct Validation Research Using the HPI .................................................................73 Job Analysis ..................................................................................................................74 Test Specification..........................................................................................................76 Criterion Measures .......................................................................................................76 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................................................77 Implementation .............................................................................................................77 References ................................................................................................................... 83 List of Tables, Figures & Appendices Tables Table 1.1: Components of the Five Factor Model ...................................................................................2 Table 2.1: Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix for HPI HICs ........................................................................ 11 Table 2.2: HPI Scale and HIC Definitions and Sample Items .......................................................... 14, 15 Table 2.3: Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilities for HPI Scales and HICs ..........................................17 Table 2.4: HPI Scale Intercorrelations ...................................................................................................18 Table 2.5: Means and Standard Deviations for HPI Scales by Gender and Race ................................18 Table 3.1: Correlations between the ASVAB Composites and the HPI Scales .....................................22 Table 3.2: Correlations between the PSI Basic Skills Tests and the HPI Scales ..................................22 Table 3.3: Correlations between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the HPI Scales ........................23 Table 3.4: Correlations between the Self-Directed Search and the HPI Scales ...................................23 Table 3.5: Correlations between the Inventory of Personal Motives and the HPI Scales ......................23 Table 3.6: Correlations between the Interpersonal Adjective Scales and the HPI Scales .....................24 Table 3.7: Correlations between the Big Five Factor Markers and the HPI Scales ...............................24 Table 3.8: Correlations between the MMPI-2 and the HPI Scales .........................................................25 Table 3.9: Correlations between the PROFILE and the HPI Scales .....................................................26 Table 3.10: Characteristics of Rated Personality Description Scales ..................................................32 Table 3.11: HPI Scale Correlates of Rated Personality Descriptions ...................................................33 Table 3.12: Adjectival Correlates of the HPI Scales ..............................................................................34 Table 4.1: A Guideline for Interpreting the HPI .......................................................................................40 Table 5.1: Correlations between Alternate Forms of HPI Administration ..............................................61 Table 6.1: Means and Standard Deviations for the HPI Occupational Scales ......................................65 Table 6.2: Additional Validity Studies for Service Orientation, Stress Tolerance, and Employee Reliability ... 66, 67 Table 6.3: Adjectival Correlates of the HPI Occupational Scales ..........................................................68 Table 6.4: Sample Utility Results for HPI Occupational Scales ............................................................82 Figures Figure 3.1: Performance Implications of the Five Factor Model ...........................................................35 Figure 4.2: Profile of a Realistic Type ...................................................................................................46 Figure 4.3: Profile of a Investigative Type .............................................................................................47 Figure 4.4: Profile of a Artistic Type ......................................................................................................48 Figure 4.5: Profile of a Social Type .......................................................................................................49 Figure 4.6: Profile of a Enterprising Type .............................................................................................50 Figure 4.7: Profile of a Conventional Type ............................................................................................51 Figure 5.1: Sample HPI Answer Sheet .................................................................................................56 Figure 6.1: Concurrent Validation Strategy ...........................................................................................74 Figure 6.2: Personality Related Job Analysis Abilities ..........................................................................75 Figure 6.3: Data File Variable Specifications ..................................................................................78, 79 Appendices Appendix A: Norms for the Total Sample ..............................................................................................90 Appendix B: Norms for Selected Stratified Subgroups .........................................................................93 Appendix C: Sample HPI Interpretive Report ......................................................................................105 Chapter 1 Conceptual Background Introduction The Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) is a measure of normal personality. It is designed primarily for use in personnel selection, individualized assessment, and career-related decision making. It provides detailed information regarding what we call the ”bright side” of personality characteristics that appear in social interaction and that facilitate or inhibit a person’s ability to get along with others and to achieve his or her educational and occupational goals. Chapter Four contains information regarding how to use the HPI for individualized assessment and Chapter Three presents data regarding the validity of the HPI for these purposes. The HPI can also be used as a research instrument. Many research projects begin with the question, What is the relationship between personality and X?”, where X is leadership, creativity, integrity, academic performance, recidivism on parole, sales productivity, or some other performance outcome. If it is possible to develop a reliable quantitative index of individual differences in performance, then, in our experience, the HPI will usually predict it. More specifically, the parts of the HPI that are conceptually related to the performance variable will predict it. Chapter Six provides a guide for doing research with the HPI. What to Measure All personality assessment begins with the question, What should we measure? Histori- cally this question was answered by practical concerns or by the test author’s personal interests. Practical concerns led to the development of the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, the prototype of psychiatric screening devices. The Woodworth PDS, like its modern successors, e.g., the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943)was used to identify soldiers who might break down under the stress of combat. On the other hand, personal interests led to the development of such widely used measures as the Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966), the F Scale (Adorno, Frenkl- Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950), the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974), and many other less well-known scales and measures that appear in the research literature. Sometimes the question What should we measure? is answered in a more theory-driven way. Projective tests such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Morgan & Murray, 1935) were developed to assess unconscious memories, desires, or complexes that, it is assumed, a person might be reluctant or unable consciously to reveal. The objective, multidimensional personality inventories developed in the 1940s and 1950sÑe.g., the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire and the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey were designed to measure traits. Traits are hypothetical neuropsychic structures 1 that are believed to underlie individual differences in social behavior. These hypothetical psychic structures or traits are assumed to be somehow projected into a person’s answers to questionnaire items. We don’t believe that theories about hypothetical psychic structures are the proper foundation for an assessment system. One of the oldest problems in philosophy concerns how to verify claims about the contents of other peoples minds, and the problem has not been solved. Consequently, psychologists know little in a scientific way about the nature of the psychic structures that guide behavior although it is an endlessly fascinating topic on which to speculate. We have our own ideas about psychic structures, but we didn’t use them to decide what to measure. If we don’t start with speculations about psychic structures, where then should we start? The next section presents one answer. The Five Factor Model The development of the Five Factor Model (FFM) (cf. Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992; John, 1990, p. 72; McCrae & Costa, 1987), based on 50 years of factor analytic research on the structure of peer ratings (cf. Thurstone, 1934; Tupes & Christal, 1961; Norman, 1963), suggests that we think about and describe one another in terms of five broad themes (see Table 1.1). The FFM is a useful starting point for inventory construction. It is useful not because it reflects underlying psychic truth, but because it is a systematic method for classifying individual differences in social behavior. In fact, the evidence suggests that all existing Table 1.1 Components of the Five Factor Model Factor Definition ACL Marker Items (a) I. Surgency The degree to which a person needs Quiet, Reserved, Shy vs. Talkative, The degree to which a person needs Fault finding, Cold, Unfriendly vs. II. Agreeableness pleasant and harmonious relations with The degree to which a person is willing Careless, Disorderly, III. Conscientiousness to comply with conventional rules, Frivolous vs. Organized, The degree to which a person Tense, Anxious, Nervous vs. Stable, IV. Emotional Stability experiences the world as threatening The degree to which a person Commonplace, Narrow interest, V. Intellect / Openness needs intellectual stimulation, Simple vs. Wide interest, to Experience Imaginative, Intelligent (a) The objectives listed here were taken from John’s (1990, Table 3.2) listing of factor loadings for selected 7 multidimensional personality inventories can be described, with little difficulty, in terms of these five dimensions (Wiggins & Pincus, 1992). Consequently, the FFM has become, in a sense, the paradigm for modern research in personality assessment. Although the FFM is a logical starting point for inventory construction, the model also has some important limitations. For example, some significant dimensions of personality, i.e., masculinity-femininity are not included in the FFM (e.g., Hough, 1992; Kamp & Hough, 1986). In addition, the FFM concerns the structure of observer ratings; the structure of self ratings is necessarily more complex (J. Hogan & R. Hogan, 1991). Moreover, modern research on social cognition suggests that when we first meet another person, we automatically categorize that person in terms of his or her gender, age, ethnicity, and status. It is only after we know the person somewhat better, i.e., after talking for a minute or two that we begin to make the distinctions implied by the FFM. Finally, although people can describe themselves in terms of the FFM, they probably don’t normally think of themselves in these terms. Rather, they tend to think about themselves in terms of their values, goals, aspirations, and fears. The FFM is based on observers descriptions of others. In a real sense, therefore, the FFM concerns the structure of reputation because a reputation is based on social consensus regarding trends in a person’s behavior. The concept of reputation has a bad reputation in personality psychology, due in part to Allport’s (1961) view that reputations are a superficial phenomenon. We disagree. A person’s reputation, as Shakespeare observed, is a person’s most important possession. And it is a rich source of data. Reputations are publicly visible, they can be reliably assessed, they tell us about observable tendencies in the behavior of others, and they can be used to forecast future behavior (cf. Emler, 1990). Reputations are an invaluable source of information about another person’s strengths and shortcomings, and reputations control the direction of careers. What is it that creates a person’s reputation? Behavior during social interaction. Of what does that behavior consist? It consists at least in part of actions designed to establish, defend, or enhance that person’s identity (cf. Goffman, 1958). In our view, therefore, personality assessment measures or samples self-presentational behavior. An assessment device allows us to aggregate these behavior samples, to assign them numbers according to certain agreed-upon rules, and then to use these numbers or scores to make predictions about a person’s future behavior. How to Measure Personality The word personality has two meanings (MacKinnon, 1944). On the one hand, it refers to structures inside a person that are known primarily by that person and only inferred by others; this is personality from the perspective of the actor. On the other hand, personality refers to the distinctive impression that a person makes on others; this is personality from the perspective of the observer. Personality from the observer’s perspective is essentially the same as a person’s reputation. In order to measure personality, it is helpful to focus on those aspects that are observable so that our measurement claims can be verified by others. The most observable part of personality is that which is known by others, i.e., a person’s reputation. As noted above, everyone’s reputation can be described in terms of five dimensions that range from: 3 1. nervous and moody to calm and assured. 2. quiet and unassertive to active and outgoing. 3. impulsive and careless to conscientious and conforming. 4. hard nosed and tough to tactful and sensitive. 5. narrow and unimaginative to curious and imaginative. One answer to the question, How to measure personality? is to measure the major components of reputation. How to Build a Scale Once we have decided on the aspects of personality that we want to assess, we can begin building the scales for our assessment device. Starting with a particular theme or concept, for example, Sociability, we ask what sorts of things might a person say or do so as to create the impression that he or she is either shy (the low end of Sociability) or extraverted (the high end). Then we write an item that reflects this judgment: “I hate speaking in front of a group” might be a shyness item; “I enjoy meeting new people” might be an extraversion item. After we have written several items reflecting a common theme, we must then evaluate the degree to which this set of items forms a coherent statistical cluster and evaluate the degree to which scores based on this cluster predict reputation. This process is, in a sense, never finished. The personality inventory described in this manual is the product of over 15 years of more or less constant revision. Item Response Dynamics What happens when a person responds to an item on a personality inventory? Many people seem to believe that a person reads the item (I enjoy meeting new people), searches his or her memory for occasions that match the content of the item (i.e., a time when he or she met new people), compares the content of the item with his or her memory (i.e., was it fun?), then reports the results of the comparison either by endorsing or not endorsing the item. This view of how people respond to items has led psychologists to call personality inventories self-report measures. We disagree with this view of how people respond to items for two reasons. First, it is based on an outdated model of how memory works. Memory is not like a stored video tape that we retrieve and review; rather, research says we construct our memories (cf. Bartlett, 1932) and the factors that shape the construct ion of memories including mood, circumstances, and experience are themselves part of personality. Second, we believe that completing a personality inventory more closely resembles being interviewed by an anonymous person from whom we receive no feedback. The processes that shape responses to inventory items are the same as the processes that shape answers to questions during an interview. Thus, item responses are more like self-presentations than self-reports. People think about the question, they think about the kind of image that would be conveyed by a positive or negative response to the item, they think about what kind of an image they want to convey before this anonymous audience, then they endorse the item so as to convey that image. The process is, of course, much faster and less self-conscious 4 than we have just described in the same way that answers to interview questions are formed quickly and without a great deal of conscious planning. The reason the process is fast and relatively unselfconscious is because self-presentation in adulthood is well practiced and nearly automatic. This view of item response dynamics makes moot the issue of faking responses on a personality inventory. Recall that the goal in assessment is not to measure a person’s true self which he or she may sometimes refuse (or be unable) to disclose. Rather the goal is to sample a person’s typical self-presentational style. Some people tend to present themselves in ways that deny the less attractive aspects of human nature which they necessarily share. Their overly conforming and unrealistically kind and cheerful style will cause them to answer true to such items as : ÒI have never hated anyone. Such persons will get elevated scores on special scales designed to detect faking. But such persons are not faking; rather, their excessively virtuous answers are part of their characteristic interpersonal style (see Chapter Four). From our perspective, any systematic pattern of responding is interpretable. Socioanalytic Theory The HPI was developed in the context of Socioanalytic theory (R. Hogan, 1983, 1986). Socioanalytic theory assumes that people are motivated in a deep biological sense to engage in social interaction. More specifically, people’s social behavior is regulated by two broad and usually unconscious motives. The first motive impels us to seek the acceptance and recognition of our peers and to try to avoid their criticism and rejection. The second motive impels us to seek status and power relative to our peers and to try to avoid losing status and control. In this view, getting along with, and getting ahead of others become dominant themes in social life. Over time people develop identities; identities are idealized self-images (e.g., athlete, scholar, lover, person of integrity), and these self-images tend to guide behavior during social interaction. People also develop repertoires of self-presentational behavior which they use to tell others about these idealized self-images. Identities and self-presentational behaviors are the basis on which social acceptance and status are awarded or withdrawn. That is to say, in the context of social interaction, others observe us; the amount of acceptance and respect that they give us depends on their reactions to us. And what are they reacting to? They are reacting to our behavior which, as we have suggested, consists in part of self-presentations guided by underlying, idealized self-images. Finally, in adults these processes are nearly automatic and go on outside of awareness. Consequently, personal development depends on: (a) becoming aware of how others are reacting to us; and (b) modifying what we do that may cause undesirable reactions. The Inevitability of the Five Factor Model Wiggins (1979) proposes that social interaction involves giving and withholding acceptance and status. Reputations are a rough index of the amount of acceptance and respect that a person has been given by his or her community. Because reputations are encoded in terms of the FFM, it follows that the FFM also concerns evaluations of acceptance and status. More specifically, Socioanalytic theory suggests that people are predisposed to evaluate others in terms of the degree to which they will be an asset or a liability to their families or social groups. Again, the dimensions of the FFM concern individual differences in social 5