HI1?jfITE .... ~~~~-.-~.~~~~ FORTIFICATIONS c.1650-700 BC ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND ILLUSTRATORS KONSTANTIN SNOSSOVisaresearcherinandadviseron ancientand medievalarms,armourand warfare,aswell astheauthorofnumerousbooks andarticles.Hisparticularareasofinterestincludethe historyofweapons, fortification and siegewarfare.Hehaslivedall hislifeinMoscowand has travelledextensivelyin Europe,NorthAfrica,SouthAsia,Asia Minorand the FarEast. BRIAN DELFbegan hiscareerworking inaLondon artstudioproducing artworkforadvertising and commercial publications.Since 1972,hehas worked asafreelance illustratoron avarietyofsubjectsincluding natural history,architectureandtechnical cutaways. Hisillustrationshavebeen published inoverthirtycountries.Brian livesand worksinOxfordshire. FORTRESS • 73 HITTITE FORTIFICATIONS c.1650-700 BC KONSTANTIN SNOSSOV ILLUSTRATED BY BRIAN DELF SerieseditorsMarcusCowperand Nikolai Bogdanovic FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2008byOspreyPublishing, AUTHOR'S NOTE MidlandHouse,WestWay,Botley,OxfordOX2OPH,UnitedKingdom Thespellingofpropernounsandgeographicalnamesinthebookis 443ParkAvenueSouth,NewYork,NY10016,USA asclosetotheoriginalaspossible.Oneexceptionhasonlybeenmade Email:[email protected] forthecityofHattusha,whichiscommonlyknownbythisnamebut ©2008OspreyPublishingLtd. isalsoencounteredasHattusaorHattu~a~,aswellasinitsHattianform Hattus/Hattush.Unfortunately,theoriginalHittitenamesofmanyofthe Allrightsreserved.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivate sitesareunknowntoustoday.Andthesesitesarenamedaftertheclosest study,research,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright, modernTurkishsettlement.Thefollowingrulesshouldbeborninmindin DesignsandPatentsAct,1988,nopartofthispublicationmaybe readingTurkishnames: reproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyform orbyanymeans,electronic,electrical,chemical,mechanical,optical, Turkishcisreadj(forinstance,inAlacahoyuk) photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwritten Turkish<;isreadch(forinstance,inIc;el) permissionofthecopyrightowner.Enquiriesshouldbeaddressed Turkish9isreadgh(forinstance,inBogazk6y) tothePublishers. Turkish~isreadsh(forinstance,inAIi~ar) Theletter5thatoccursofteninthenamesofHittitekingsiswritten ACIPcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. eitherasshorass. ISBN9781846032073 Allthephotographsinthisbookarefromtheauthor'scollection. Allrequestsshouldbeaddressedto:[email protected] Editorialby!IiosPublishing,Oxford,UK(www.iliospublishing.com) [email protected]. PagelayoutbyKenVailGraphicDesign,Cambridge,UK(kvgd.com) TypesetinSabonandMyriadPro IndexbyAlisonWorthington MapsbyTheMapStudioLtd,Romsey,Hants. ARTIST'S NOTE OriginatedbyPPSGrasmere,Leeds,UK Readersmaycaretonotethattheoriginalpaintingsfromwhichthe PrintedandboundinChinathroughBookbuilders colourplatesinthisbookwerepreparedareavailableforprivatesale. 08 09 10 11 12 10 98 76 54 3 2 1 AllreproductioncopyrightwhatsoeverisretainedbythePublishers. Allenquiriesshouldbeaddressedto: FORACATALOGUEOFALLBOOKSPUBLISHEDBYOSPREYMILITARY ANDAVIATIONPLEASECONTACT: BrianDelf 7BurcotPark NORTHAMERICA Burcot OspreyDirect,c/oRandomHouseDistributionCenter,400HahnRoad, Abingdon Westminster,MD21157 Oxon Email:[email protected] OX143DH UK ALLOTHERREGIONS OspreyDirectUK,POBox140,Wellingborough, ThePublishersregretthattheycanenterintonocorrespondenceupon Northants,NN82FA,UK thismatter. Email:[email protected] www.ospreypublishing.com THE FORTRESS STUDY GROUP (FSG) TheobjectoftheFSGistoadvancetheeducationofthepublicinthe studyofallaspectsoffortificationsandtheirarmaments,especially worksconstructedtomountorresistartillery.TheFSGholdsanannual conferenceinSeptemberoveralongweekendwithvisitsandevening lectures,anannualtourabroadlastingabouteightdays,andanannual Members'Day. TheFSGjournalFORTispublishedannually,anditsnewsletterCasemate ispublishedthreetimesayear.Membershipisinternational.Forfurther details,pleasecontact: TheSecretary,c/o6LanarkPlace,LondonW91BS,UK website:www.fsgfort.com DEDICATION GLOSSARY ToAndrewSarjevsky,mytruefriendandloyalcompanioninfarfromeasy asandula/i- Garrison expeditionsinAsiaMinor. gurta- Fortress gurtawanni- Acastellan,aninhabitantordefenderofafortress;theterm hasonlyrecentlybeencomeacrossanditsmeaningisunclear ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS hoyiik(hiiyiik) Turkishwordforamoundofatypicalarchaeologicalsite TheauthorwishestoexpresssincerethankstoVladimirGolubevwho formedbydebrisofanancientsettlement(usuallypriorto theClassicalPeriod).Suchmoundsareparticularlyhigh createdtheblackandwhiteimagesforthisbook. wheretherewasanumberofmainlymud-bricksettlements builtsuccessfullyononeandthesameplace.Mud-brick SpecialthanksareduetoMustafaMetin,archaeologistintheMuseum cannotbeusedtwice,sowhenoldbuildingsbecame ofAncientCivilizationsinAnkarawhokindlyadvisedtheauthoronthe redundant,thesitewasleveledoutandnewbuildingsbuilt datingofartefactspreservedinthemuseum. ontop.Thus,layerbylayeranartificialmoundgrew.Turkish hoyiikissimilartoArabictell,HebrewtelandPersiantepe. TheauthoralsothanksMuratBektas,theguidewhotookusabouttheruins karum 'Port'inAkkadian,althoughitsmeaningwasextendedto ofHattusha,AlacahoyukandYazilikayaandrevealednotonlyanexcellent refertoanyAssyrianmerchantcolonywhetheritbordered knowledgeofthesitesbutalsogreatpatiencewhileweexaminedtheruins. waterornot. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 4 CHRONOLOGY 7 METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 10 ANATOMY OF HITTITE FORTRESSES 16 Walls. Towers • Gates. Posterns • Ramparts TOUR OF THE SITES: HATTUSHA, ALACAHOYUK AND KARATEPE 22 Hattusha • Alacah6yuk • Karatepe SANCTUARIES AND THE LIVING SITES 44 The living sites AFTERMATH 53 THE SITES TODAY 57 Alacah6yuk • Ali~ar • Carchemish • Gavurkalesi or Gavurkale ('the castle ofinfidels') Hattusha (Hattusa, Hattu~a~or Hatush) • I<;el (Mersin) • Kanes/Nesa (modern Kultepe) Karatepe • Sam'al (Zincirli) BIBLIOGRAPHYAND FURTHER READING 62 INDEX 64 HITTITE FORTIFICATIONS Be c.1650-700 INTRODUCTION In the second halfofthe 3rd millennium Be the Indo-European tribes known tousastheHittitesstartedtomigratetoandsettleinCentralAnatolia. Atthat time it was a land ofsmall city-states some ofwhose names have survived to this day, such as Kanes (Nesa), Kussara, Hattusha, Zalpa and Puruskhanda; however,theexactlocationofthesesitesisnotalwaysknown. Thenewcomers graduallysettledall over CentralAnatolia andtookcontrolofthe region. The Sam/al(Zincirli):general mergingoftheHittiteswiththeindigenousHattianpopulationappearstohave planoffortificationsandthe beenafairlypeacefulprocess,thoughsomearmedconflictisindicatedbytraces reconstructedsouthcitygate. of destruction in strata from the period discovered at Alacahoyiik, Ali~ar, Theurbanfortificationsformed acircleandconsistedofa Hattusha and others. doublewallwith100towers AdistinctHittitecultureemergedastheresultofseveralcenturiesofmerging andthreegates.Thesouthern ofHattian and Indo-European traditions. So, while the Hattian language was gatewasmostformidableone: ousted by that of the newcomers, it was not forgotten and was later used by inadditiontothegatesinthe outerandinnerwallsithad Hittite priests in performing some ofthe rites. Moreover, the Hittite state was alowfortification(barbican) knownthroughoutMesopotamia as the 'Land ofHatti'. infront.Eachofthethree The first recorded Hittitekings are PithanaandAnitta who ruledfrom the gateswasstrengthened asyetundiscoveredcityofKussara. Later,AnittaremovedthecapitaltoNesa, withtwoflankingtowers projectingforward. and the Hittites began to call their language Neshian after that city. Anitta 4 Thespacebetweentheinner andouterwallsontheYerkapi RampartinHattusha.Theouter wallwaserectedtowardsthe endofthe13thcenturyBe, probablyinthefaceofa growingthreattothecity. Thewallblockedtheflights ofstepsonbothsidesofthe rampartandtheSphinxGate inthemiddle.Thetowersofthe outerwallwereputinbetween thetowersofthemainwall. was a great conqueror who subjugated the city-states of Nesa, Zalpa and Puruskhanda,aswellasdestroyingHattushaandanathematizingitforalltime, threateninganyonewhosettledtherewiththewrathoftheWeatherGod. One ofhis successors, however, did not heed the curse and in mid-17th century BC removedthecapitalfrom Kussara (whereithadmoved backto from Nesa) to Hattusha. Hetookthename ofHattusilior 'onefrom Hattusha'. HattusiliIis consideredto bethefounder ofthe OldHittiteKingdomandhe,alongwithhis successor Mursili I, subjugated large territories not only in Central Anatolia but also in Syria and Mesopotamia. Mursili Ieven captured Babylon in 1595 BC, thus causing the downfall of the First Babylonian Dynasty. The largest external threat to the Hittite Kingdom during this period was the Hurrian KingdomoftheMitanni (locatedinwhatistodaythesouth-eastofTurkeyand thenorthernpartsofSyriaandIraq). Hurrianraidsledtothesecessionofsome of the southern and eastern Anatolian provinces from the Hittites, and may well have been the spur that led to the rapid development of the art of fortification in the region. The OldKingdom periodwitnesses the appearance of cyclopean fortification walls, hitherto unknown in Anatolia. Hantili I (c.1590-60 BC) in particular rebuilt and strengthened the fortifications ofthe city ofHattusha. Aperiod ofinternal unrestonlyendedwith the accession to the throne of Telipinu (c.1525 BC) and, bythe reign ofSuppiluliuma I (c.1380-40 BC), the HittiteKingdomreached its prime. SuppiluliumaI, alongwithhis successors Mursili II and Muwatalli II, made the Hittite Empire one of the leading powersofthe ancientNearEast. Asaresultofmilitaryoperationsorcarefully thought-outtreaties, theHittitessubjectedthewesternregions ofAsiaMinor, the kingdom ofthe Mitanni and Syria as far north as the river Euphrates to theirrule. ThisexpansionledtoconflictwithEgypt,culminatinginthe battle of Qadesh (c.1274 BC), after which the two superpowers of the Bronze Age signed a peace treaty. The 14th and 13th centuries BC was a golden age for Hittite imperial power and culture, which is most strongly revealed in the design of their capital. A great number of buildings that can be seen here today, as well as the formidable 3.3km long defensive wall of the Upper City, were erected during this period. Although Muwattalli II (c.1306-1272 BC) made an attemptto move thecapitalintoTarhuntasha (acitystillawaitingdiscovery) his son and successor MursiliIIIreturned itto Hattusha, where it remained. 5 TheKing'sGateintheUpper The defensive strategy on the borders of the Hittite Empire directly CityofHattushaviewedfrom depended on who were their neighbours. To the north and south-west were theramp.Ontherightthere turbulent tribes who never completely submitted to Hittite rule. Therefore, wasanouterwallwithatower chains offortress-cities, such as Alacahoyiik, were built to protect the roads justoppositethegate.Just imaginehowvulnerablethe leading to the capital. In case ofmore civilized neighbours, such as Egypt to enemymusthavefeltfinding the south-east and Arzawa to the west, Hittite rulers installed vassal themselvesunderthefire principalities to act as buffer states. broughttobearuponthem Thisgoldenage didnotlast. Towards the endofthe 13thcenturyBCyears fromthemassivetowersby ofpoorharvests, uprisings andinvasions bythe 'Peoplesofthe Sea'ledtothe thegateandtheouterwall. decline of the Hittite Empire. Additional fortifications were erected in Hattusha andthe grainsupplieswere barricadedwithinaseparatecitadel on Biiyiikkaya. However, this did not save the capital and, in c.1180 BCthe last Hittiteking, SuppiluliumaII, leftHattushawithmostofthepopulationofthe city for an unknown destination. Many of the buildings in the former capital (the royal palace, temples, stretchesofthefortificationwall) revealsigns ofdestruction byfire. Theroyal citadelBiiyiikkalesufferedmostofallandwascompletelydestroyed,withthe streets being coated with a thick layer of charred wood and mud-brick tempered by fire. Those responsible for this destruction are unknown. Some believethatMushki (Phrygians) incursionsfrom thewestwereto blamewhile others placethe blame upon the shoulders ofthe Kashkans to the north. The fall ofthe Hittite Empire should not be seen as an isolated event as the late 13th and early 12th centuries BC saw the fall of Troy and a number of Mycenaean cities as well as Hattusha. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Central Anatolia experienced a period of decay, which is generally called the Dark Ages. At the same time several so-called Late Hittite kingdoms became established in south-east Anatolia and the northernmost part ofSyria. These kingdoms saw themselves astheheirsoftheHittiteEmpireandAssyrianrecordscontinuetorefertothem asthe 'LandofHatti'. Eachkingdomwas basedonawell-fortifiedcapitalafter which it is usually known today (Carchemish, Sam'al and others). Apartfrom the capital, border fortresses and fortified residences of the rulers also prove 6 Anatolia during the Hittite period ."e~tP'.•.~ q.f;:}.>. -BoundaryoftheHittiteEmpireinlate14thcenturyBc ----- ConfinesofmaximumHittiteinfluence t " SitewhereHittitefortificationshavebeenpreserved 100miles I 200km common. Karatepeproves afine example ofsucha borderfortress, whichalso served as asummerresidencefor the ruler. TheLateHittitekingdoms lastedto theendofthe 8thcenturyBCwhen, one byone,theywereswallowedup bythe nascentAssyrian Empire, principally between 738 and 709 BC. CHRONOLOGY DatingHittiteeventsis afar from easymatter. The mainproblemis a lack of established startingpoints. Therefore, to date an event in Hittite history one hastoresortto comparisonwithforeign sources, oftenEgyptianorAssyrian. However, their chronology is not completely reliable either. To complicate matters, different Hittite kings often had the same name and are often mentionedinthe documentswithoutanyindicationoftheirsuccession (first, second, andsoon). Forinstance,whenweseethenameoftheKingTudhaliya inaninscription,wecanonlyguesswhichofthefour kings ofthesamename, covering four different centuries, is meant. Therefore, nearly all the dates cited below are approximate and may sometimes vary wildly. It should be mentioned that many different sets of dates exist with regard to Hittite chronology as well as that of other Near East countries. If the date is given with'/', itmeans thatthe date remains a subjectofdebate (thedates are cited inchronologicalorder). Forthekings, theyears oftheirruleareindicated, not oftheir life. All the dates below refer to BC. 7 MinoanandMycenaean Hittites AncientEgypt Mesopotamia Troy civilizations 3100/3000-2600-Early 2900/2750-2334/2315- 2900-2450- DynasticPeriod(1st-3rd EarlyDynasticPeriod TroyI Dynasties) 2600-2181/2137-Old 2334-2193- Kingsof 2450-2200- Kingdom(3rd-6th Dynasties) Agade(Akkad) TroyII 3100-1900-Minoan Pre-Palatialperiod 2181/2137-2040- First onCrete 2200-2100- IntermediatePeriod TroyIII (7th-11thDynasties) 2112-2004-TheThird 2100-2000- DynastyofUr(2112-2095- TroyIV Ur-Nammu) 2000-1600-Dynastiesof thekingsofIsin,Larsa,Uruk, Babylon,Eshnunna,Ashur 2040-1780-Middle andMarL Kingdom(11th-12th 1900-1700-Minoan Dynasties) 1813-1781-Shamshi-Adad 2000-1700- Proto-Palatialperiod Before1750-PithanaandAnitta TroyV IofAssyriaorthenthe onCrete (kingsofKussaraandNesa) town-stateofAshur 1792-50-Hammurabi, 1740-10-TudhaliyaI OldBabylonianking 1710-1680-Pu-Sarruma 1780-1550-Second IntermediatePeriod(13th- 1680-50-LabarnaI 17thDynasties) 1700-1450-Minoan OldKingdom Neo-Palatialperiod (1650-1400/1350) onCrete 1650-20- HattusiliI 1600-Minoaninfluence 1620-1590-MursiliI onCyclades 1650-1550- Hyksosrulers 1595/1415-1155- Kassite 1595-HittitesruinBabylon (15th-16thDynasties) DynastyinBabylon 1590-60- HantiliI.Herebuildsand strengthensthefortificationsofHattusha 1560-50-ZidantaI 1550-30-Ammuna 1550-1085/1070-New Kindgom(18th-20th 1530-25- HuzziyaI Dynasties) 1525-00-Telipinu 1500-1490-Alluwamna 1504/1479-1450/25- ThutmosisIII 1700-1250- 1490-80- HantiliII TroyVI 1480-70-ZidantaII 1470-60-Huzziya" 1460-50-MuwattalliI 1450-40-TudhaliyaII 1450-25-AmenhotepII (AmenophisII) 1450/1400-Mycenaeans atKnossosonCrete 1440-20-ArnuwandaI 1420-00-Hattusili" 1400-1380-TudhaliyaIII 1408/1391-1372/1349- 1400-1300-developed 1400- Hattushaisburneddownbythe AmenhotepIII fortificationsappearat Kashkans (AmenophisIII) MycenaeandTiryns HittiteEmpire (1400/1350-1200/1180) 1380-40-SuppiluliumaI 1348-38-Tutankhamun 1363-28-Ashur-uballitI 1380-Destruction ofAssyria ofKnossos 1340-39-ArnuwandaII 1339-06-MursiliII 8