UNITED STATES NAVY DEPARTMENT BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS TECHNICAL NOTE NO. 18, SERIES OF 1930 A HISTORY OF U.S. NAVAL AVIATION BY CAPT. W. H. SITZ, USMC UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1930 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I The Beginning of Aviation 1 II History of Pre-War Naval Aviation 5 III World War Organization and Personnel 9 IV United States Naval Aircraft Factory 15 V United States Naval Aviation in France 20 VI United States Naval Aviation in the British Isles 27 VII United States Naval Aviation in Italy 29 VIII The Northern Bombing Group 30 IX Marine Corps Aviation 34 X The Trans-Atlantic Flight 36 XI Development of Heavier-than-air Craft 39 XII Development of Lighter-than-air Craft 47 III NAVY DEPARTMENT BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS TECHNICAL NOTE NO. 18 A HISTORY OF UNITED STATES NAVAL AVIATION By Capt. W. H. Sitz, United States Marine Corps CHAPTER I THE BEGINNING OF AVIATION Although a large number of experimenters gave their attention to the problem of mechanical flight previous to the last decade of the nineteenth century, nothing practical was achieved prior to that time. But with the perfection of the steam engine and the development of the internal combustion engine, there came inducement to sound experimentation bringing forth such well known scientists and inventors as Lilienthal, Maxim, Langley, and the Wright brothers. Otto Lilienthal, a German, made the first successful flight in a man-carrying glider in 1891. This glider was a bird-shaped apparatus made of willow wood with waxed sheeting. It used cambered wings, weighed 40 pounds, and had a wing spread of 107 square feet. There were no control levers and his only method of steering was to shift the balance of the machine by swinging his legs one way or the other. Lilienthal continued his man-carrying experiments with gliders and soon thereafter developed tail surfaces for steering vertically and horizontally. He lacked the third rudder or aileron control, however, and was still dependent on the shift of body weight for preserving the lateral balance. Having executed nearly two thousand flights with several monoplane gliders, Lilienthal in 1895 built a biplane glider. He found this much easier to control and now thought he had sufficiently acquired the art of flying to justify his undertaking the next and more difficult art of imitating the rowing flight of birds. He therefore had constructed a 90-pound engine of 2 ½ horsepower, to actuate the wings of his glider, but before this motor was ready for use he was killed while making a long glide on August 9, 1896. Lilienthal gave a powerful and permanent impulse to aviation, both by his writings and by his practical experience in the air. He first showed quantitatively the advantage of arched or cambered wings and proved the effectiveness of the vertical and horizontal rudders. He was the father of the aerial glider and he had intended to undertake the problem of a power-driven flying machine at the time of his accidental death. Sir Hiram Maxim was an Englishman who in 1893 built a gigantic airplane powered with a steam engine driving two large propellers. It was a multiplane weighing 3 ½ tons and having a span of 126 feet and a wing area of 5,500 square feet. Its propelling plant comprised a naphtha tubular boiler and a compound steam engine of 350 horsepower actuating twin screws 17 feet 10 inches in diameter. The airplane was to be steered by vertical and horizontal rudders and its lateral stability was to be secured by side planes set at a dihedral angle. The machine was mounted on a platform car running along a track half a mile in length. Above the rails of this track were guard rails to 1 prevent the airplane from rising more than 3 inches during the preliminary tests. Many runs along the track were made to test the working of this huge apparatus before trusting it to launch forth in free flight and during these runs the machine frequently lifted clear of the lower track and flew forward, resting against the guard rails above. Finally, on a gusty day so much lift was obtained that these holding-down rails gave way, whereupon the machine rose into the air with Maxim and his assistant, and then toppled over on the soft earth, wrecking it. Here Maxim discontinued his experiments for lack of funds after having demonstrated that a large weight can be carried in dynamic flight, but having failed to prove the feasibility of controlling an airplane in launching, in free flight, and in landing. Prof. S. P. Langley of the Smithsonian Institution was the first person to construct an airplane possessing inherent stability. On May 6,1896, an airplane model equipped with a steam engine was successfully launched and flown, making three and a quarter turns. Tandem wings and a horizontal tail surface provided longitudinal stability, a strong wing dihedral provided lateral stability and a vertical tail surface provided a degree of directional stability. This model weighed 30 pounds, measured 16 feet in length and had a wing span of 13 feet. The engine developed between 1 and 1 ½ horsepower. As a result of this success, the Board of Ordnance and Fortifications of the War Department appropriated $50,000 to enable Langley to build a man-carrying flying machine. He first tested a gasoline driven model, having one-fourth the linear dimensions of his man- carrying machine. This model was successfully flown on August 8, 1903, and proved to be very satisfactory in all its dynamic features. Langley's man-carrying airplane was nearly a duplicate on a fourfold scale of the gasoline model. There was, accordingly, every reason to expect that, weighted and launched like the model, it would fly with the same inherent equilibrium and speed, even if left to govern itself. Having in addition a living pilot, provided with rudders for steering and balancing, together with adequate fuel for a considerable journey, it seemed to promise still better results than the model. The whole machine weighed 830 pounds, including the pilot, and had a wing area of 1,040 square feet. The gasoline, water-cooled engine weighed, without accessories, 125 pounds, and developed 52.4 horsepower in actual test at a speed of 930 revolutions per minute. Two attempts at trial flights were made with this machine, the first on September 7, 1903, and the second on December 8, 1903, but both attempts at launching were unsuccessful due to a minor defect in the launching apparatus. Thus this carefully designed machine never had a chance, even for a moment, to exhibit its powers of sustentation and balance in normal fight. Langley now abandoned his experiments for want of funds to continue them and stowed away the machine in the Smithsonian Institution with its frame and engine still intact, the wings having been injured in the unsuccessful attempt at launching. If this machine had performed as successfully in 1903 as it actually did in 1914 after being rebuilt by the Curtiss Co., Langley would have antedated the first successful flight of the Wright brothers. Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, attacked the problem of mechanical flight by experimenting with gliders. Their first glider was completed and successfully flown at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in the summer of 1900. In this glider, as in all their early machines, sled runners fixed under the machine were used for launching and landing. 2 With a wing surface of 165 square feet, they were able to glide down a slope of 10 at a speed of about 30 miles per hour. The machine was maintained in lateral stability by wing warping. The gliders used in the summer of 1901 were modeled after those of the previous year, but larger. It had a wing area of 308 square feet and weighed 108 pounds. With this glider a considerable number of glides were made, of various lengths up to 400 feet. In 1902 a third glider was constructed which was larger and showed greater efficiency than either of its predecessors, its normal angle of descent being 7 or less. With this machine some seventy glides were made and it successfully performed all the evolutions necessary for flight. The Wright brothers were now ready to apply power to a machine to drive it through the air and gain flotation by speed of motion. A power machine equipped with a 16-horsepower gasoline engine was constructed in 1903. This machine was a pusher weighing 750 pounds and possessed warping wings, a warping ele- vator in front, and a double rudder in rear for control purposes. On December 17, 1903, Orville Wright made the first successful man-carrying, power-driven airplane flight in the history of aviation with this machine at Kitty Hawk, N. C. Four flights were made on this eventful day, the first flight lasting 12 seconds, the next two a little more, and the fourth lasting 59 seconds and covering a distance of 852 feet. The Wright brothers continued their experiments during the next two years with increasing success. During the season of 1904 on a field near Dayton, 105 flights were made and the first completed circle was flown. In 1905 the flights were resumed with a new machine embodying some changes dictated by experience, particularly in the method of control. On September 26, a flight of 11 miles was achieved. This was followed, within the next 9 days, by flights of 12, 15, 21, and 24 miles at a speed of about 38 miles per hour. After this the Wright brothers ceased flying for two years and the machine was dismantled to preserve secret its mode of construction till the patents could be disposed of. The first public demonstration of a man-carrying, power flight was made by Santos-Dumont in France on August 22, 1906, flying 36 feet at a velocity of 23 miles per hour. The machine which he used was equipped with an 8-cylinder Antoinette gasoline engine developing 50 horsepower, had a wing surface of 650 square feet and weighed, including pilot, 645 pounds. In an exhibition flight on November 12 Santos-Dumont succeeded in making a flight of 723 feet, thus gaining the prize of 1,500 francs offered by the Aero Club of France for the first person who should fly 100 meters. Although Santos- Dumont was not the first to fly, he was the first airplane inventor to give his art to the world, as the general public never had any concrete idea of the machine of the Wrights until their public fights in 1908. Since Santos-Dumont's public exhibitions of the airplane in 1906, the progress of the art has been steady, rapid, and convincing. The period from 1906 to 1914 may be called the period of the inventors in the history of aviation. The art of aircraft design and construction had little scientific or engineering basis. Stresses in flight were largely unknown and the aerodynamics of balance and control were dimly understood. The theory of stability was quite unappreciated and wing sections in use were inefficient. However, very active experimenting was being done all over the world and very important patents were being taken out. The following is a general outline of actual performance indicating the development of aviation during this period: 3 1907. October, Henri Farman made a public flight of 2,550 feet. 1908. September, Orville Wright made first exhibition flight of one hour duration with passenger at Fort Myer, Va. October, Farman made first cross-country flight, Chalons to Rheims, 16 miles in 20 minutes. December, Wilbur Wright attains an altitude of 361 feet at Le Mans, France. 1909. July, Bleriot crossed English Channel, Calais to Dover, in 37 minutes. September, Wilbur Wright flew around Statue of Liberty. November, Farman flew over a distance of 144 miles in 4 hours 6 minutes at an average speed of 35 miles per hour. 1910. March, Fabre made first successful flight from water at Martigues, France. May, Curtiss made a flight from Albany to Governors Island, a distance of 135.4 miles, in 2 hours 32 minutes. August, McCurdy received and sent messages from airplane in flight at Sheepshead Bay, N. Y. December, Hoxey attained an altitude of 10,428 feet at Los Angeles. 1911. January, Ely alighted on and flew from deck of cruiser at San Francisco. February, Curtiss flew from land to water alongside U. S. S. Pennsylvania, hoisted on board, hoisted out, and flew from water. June, Nieuport established speed record of 82.7 miles per hour at Chalons, France. Calbraith Rogers flew from New York to California, 4,231 miles, from September 17, 1911, to November 5, 1911, in Wright model D airplane. Longest single flight 133 miles. First transcontinental flight. 1912. Fowler flew across continent from Jacksonville, Fla., to San Francisco, Calif., a distance of 2,232 miles, in 151 days. 1913. September, Pegoud made first voluntary loop in a Bleriot. December, Legagneux attained an altitude of 20,079 feet at St. Raphael, France. 1913. January, Sopwith produced the first small high speed military airplane. This machine was fitted with an 80-horsepower Gnome motor and had a maximum speed of 92 miles per hour. July, Boehm flew for 24 hours 12 minutes without stopping, covering 1,350 miles, in an Albatross machine. 4 CHAPTER II PRE-WAR NAVAL AVIATION The Navy first investigated the possibilities of aviation for naval purposes in 1908 when Lieut. G. C. Sweet and Naval Constructor McIntee were detailed as observers for the test of the Wright plane at Fort Myer, Va. Lieutenant Sweet endeavored to stimulate interest in the subject of aviation and suggested the use of pontoons in this report to the Navy Department, but no action was taken thereon. In 1910, Capt. W. I. Chambers, United States Navy, who was assistant to the aid for material in the Bureau of Equipment attended the aviation meets at Belmont Park, N.Y., and at Halethorpe, near Baltimore, as an official observer. Appreciating the potential value of the airplane in naval warfare, Captain Chambers endeavored to interest the Wright Co. In arranging for a flight off of a United States man-of-war. Wilbur Wright declined to make the attempt. The Curtiss Co. was then approached and they agreed to try it. The necessary arrangements were thereupon made by Captain Chambers and on November 14, 1910, the Curtiss representative, Eugene Ely, successfully flew a 50-horsepower Curtiss land-plane from a platform hastily built on the bow of the U. S. S. Birmingham at Hampton Roads, Va. Following this successful experiment, Glenn H. Curtiss, of the Curtiss Co., agreed to instruct several naval officers free of charge, as no money had as yet been appropriated by Congress for the development of naval aviation, and Lieut. T. G. Ellyson, United States Navy, was sent to the Curtiss camp at San Diego, Calif., in December, 1910. On January 18, 1911, Mr. Ely, then attached to the Curtiss camp, at San Diego, made a successful landing with an airplane on the deck of the U. S. S. Pennsylvania lying in San Francisco harbor, and the next day he flew this plane from the deck on which he had landed. During this same month, Glenn Curtiss and Lieutenant Ellyson perfected a hydroairplane attachment for airplanes. On January 26, 1911, Mr. Curtiss flew from the water at his San Diego base, landed alongside the U. S. S. Pennsylvania, was hoisted aboard ship, subsequently hoisted out again, and flew back to his camp. This performance, together with the previous feats of Mr. Ely, gave a very decided impetus to the development of naval aviation, not only in this country but in all the leading countries of the world. As a result of Captain Chambers's reports and recommendations on aviation, the first aviation appropriation of $25,000 was included in the 1911-12 naval appropriation act. On March 13, 1911, Captain Chambers received orders asigning him to the Bureau of Navigation, and directing him to devote his efforts exclusively to aviation and to the coordination of the aeronautical work of the various bureaus. This officer struggled with the many difficulties which always present themselves to those to whom fate assigns the difficult task of injecting new ideas and a new activity into a staid and elderly organization. The Navy as a whole was not interested and Captain Chambers worked alone and unassisted to build up a naval aviation establishment. Early in 1911 Lieut. John Rodgers, United States Navy; Lieut. John Towers, United States Navy; and Ensign V. D. Herbster, United States Navy, were ordered to the Curtiss and Wright Cos. for instruction in the art of flying. Two Curtiss planes and one Wright plane were purchased, and in the summer of 1911 the first naval aviation unit was 5 organized and an aviation camp established at Greenburg Point on Government land near Annapolis, Md. In the summer of 1911 the first naval seaplane was flown off a suspended cable, Lieutenant Ellyson acting as pilot. This camp was transferred to San Diego on land adjoining the Curtiss camp during the winter of 1911-12 and moved back to Annapolis the following summer, where tent hangars were set up fronting the Severn River. The first notable flight by a naval aviator was accomplished in the autumn of 1911 by Lieut. John Rodgers, who flew from Annapolis to Washington and then to College Park, Md., from which place he later returned to Annapolis via Baltimore and Havre de Grace. Lieutenants Ellyson and Towers made a memorable record flight over the waters of Chesapeake Bay from Annapolis to Fortress Monroe, Va., and return, also in the autumn of 1911. In the next year Lieutenant Towers established a new world's endurance record for seaplanes by remaining in the air 6 hours and 20 minutes. During the year 1912, the following officers were ordered to the naval aviation camp for flying instruction: Naval Constructor H. C. Richardson to San Diego, Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. Chevalier, Lieut. (Junior Grade) P. N. L. Bellinger, Lieut. (Junior Grade) W. D. Billingsley, First Lieut. A. A. Cunningham, United States Marine Corps, and First Lieut. B. L. Smith, United States Marine Corps. The year 1912 saw the invention of the catapult, a distinctly American achievement. The first catapult was designed at the Naval Gun Factory, Washington, D. C., under the supervision of Captain Chambers. The first shot that was attempted, with Lieutenant Ellyson as pilot of the plane, proved unsuccessful. The redesign of the catapult was assigned to Naval Constructor Richardson and Lieutenant Ellyson was successfully catapulted from this second catapult on October 12, 1912. This extraordinary feat was accomplished from a float at the Washington Navy Yard. Another important naval aviation accomplishment which occurred in 1912 was the construction of the United States Navy Aerodynamical Laboratory at the Washington Navy Yard. This aerodynamical laboratory or wind tunnel was constructed under the supervision of Naval Constructor D. W. Taylor in order to provide a means for finding the engineering basis for the design of naval aircraft, and was the first wind tunnel of modern type to be built in the United States. It closely resembles in type the German wind tunnel at Gottingen. It is of interest to observe Naval Constructor Taylor's foresight and enterprise in providing, immediately after the purchase of the Navy's first seaplane in 1911 from the inventor, the scientific apparatus for its analysis and improvement. This wind tunnel was then, and remained for many years thereafter, the largest and most powerful in the world. In January, 1913, the naval aviation detachment was transported by a Navy collier to Guantanamo for its first operation with the fleet. The Cuban camp was commanded by Lieutenant Towers, subject to orders from the commander in chief of the fleet. Numerous interesting and practical tests were made of the employment of planes in cooperation with ships and many of the fleet officers became more or less familiar with aviation. At this time several notable flights were made along the Cuban coast and the usefulness of aircraft as scouts in discovering the approach of a distant fleet and in detecting mine fields and submarines were amply and practically demonstrated. With the return of the fleet to the United States after the winter maneuvers, the aviation 6 detachment was transferred back to Annapolis again and continued under command of J. H. Towers. In 1913 Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. D. Murray, United States Navy, Second Lieut. William McIlvaine, United States Marine Corps, First Lieutenant Cunningham, United States Marine Corps, Lieutenant (Junior Grade) Saufley, Lieut. (Junior Grade) M. L. Stolz, and Ensign W. D. Lamont joined the ranks of naval aviators. In June of this year Lieutenant Bellinger hung up a world's seaplane record for altitude by ascending to 6,200 feet in 45 minutes in a Curtiss seaplane. First Lieut. B. L. Smith, United States Marine Corps, by starting from the water, alighting on the land, and then returning to the water, made the first successful flight in an amphibian or combined land and water aircraft in the summer of 1913. During 1912 Naval Constructor Richardson conducted a series of model basin tests on the planing properties of seaplane floats and hulls which have proved to be perhaps the most important and fruitful research ever undertaken by the Navy. Richardson for the first time showed the effect of the form of the float on its water performance, and from these tests he evolved the lines of United States Navy seaplane floats and hulls which have since that date made them a standard for others to follow. Richardson's tests showed the advantages of Vee bottom, long easy form, spray strips, and single step with sharp rise of after body. Naval Constructor J. C. Hunsaker was sent to Europe during the summer of this year to make a study of European aviation. He was then ordered to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he installed a wind tunnel and where a course in aeronautical engineering was established under his super- vision. During the summer of 1913 Lieutenant Bellinger conducted experiments at Hammondsport in connection with the development of the Sperry automatic stabilizer. In October, 1913, a Board of Aeronautics was appointed by the Secretary of the Navy to report on the needs of a suitable aeronautical organization and establishment for the Navy. Capt. W. I. Chambers was made chairman of the board and a policy of development was outlined. One of the most important recommendations of this board was for the establishment of an aviation station at Pensacola, Fla. This recommendation was approved and in January, 1914, the first United States Navy air station was established on the site of the abandoned navy yard at that place. At the same time the Annapolis aviation camp was broken up and all aviation personnel and equipment transferred to the U. S. S. Mississippi which was ordered to Pensacola and turned over to naval aviation in order that aviation might keep in touch with ships. Lieut. Commander Mustin was assigned to aviation and became the first commanding officer of the Pensacola air station. In December, 1913, Captain Chambers was relieved of his duties in charge of naval aviation activities by Capt. Mark L. Bristol. This year saw the first employment of naval aviation in active service. When the Atlantic Fleet was ordered to Mexican waters in April, 1914, in connection with the occupation of Vera Cruz, a naval aviation section consisting of two airplanes completely manned and equipped was attached to the U. S. S. Mississippi which was sent to Vera Cruz, and another was attached to the U. S. S. Birmingham, which was sent to Tampico. The two airplanes at Vera Cruz were used 7 continually, and although these planes were not fitted for land work, for 43 days they did considerable scouting over the trenches protecting the city of Vera Cruz. To every call made upon them, the naval aviators attached to the U. S. S. Mississippi made ready and cheerful response and their scout work in the air was of much value in the combined Army and Navy operations at Vera Cruz. In the summer of 1914, the U. S. S. Mississippi was relieved by the U. S. S. North Carolina as the naval aviation ship, the Government having sold the former ship to Greece. In June, 1914, the Navy Department ordered Lieutenant Towers to Hammondsport for duty in connection with the construction and proposed flight to Europe of the twin-engined seaplane America, with the understanding that he would be permitted to participate in that flight if success seemed feasible. The outbreak of war interrupted the project. The America marked the beginning of big boat development. At this point naval aviation suffered a serious setback. The war broke out and the North Carolina with its complement of aviation officers and men, augmented by other naval personnel, was ordered to Europe. The ship remained in Europe until the summer of 1915, performing various duties in connection with the relief of Americans there. In addition, Lieutenant Towers was ordered as assistant naval attaché, London, and Lieutenant Herbster and Lieut. B. L. Smith to Berlin and Paris, respectively, for the same duties. Work at Pensacola was brought practically to a standstill for many months. During 1914 additional officers were assigned to aviation duty in the following sequence: Ensigns C. K. Bronson and W. A. Edwards, Lieut. Kenneth Whiting, Lieut. L. H. Maxfield, Ensigns E. O. McDonnell, Wadleigh Capehart, E. W. Spencer, H. T. Bartlett and G. D. Murray. Classes were then ordered more or less regularly until the entry of the United States in the war. During 1915 the first Navy designed seaplane was built at the Washington Navy Yard. This plane was designed by Naval Constructor Richardson. On April 20, 1915, the Navy bought its first airship, the "D-1," from the Connecticut Aircraft Co. of New Haven, Conn. In this year Lieut. Saufley ascended to an altitude of 14,500 feet in a Curtiss seaplane and shortly afterwards made an endurance record of 8 hours and 20 minutes in the same type of plane. Another notable event of 1915 was the first catapult flight from a ship underway which was made from the U. S. S. North Carolina by Capt. H. C. Mustin. In the early part of 1916, the aviation ship, the U. S. S. North Carolina with five planes aboard operated with the fleet during the winter maneuvers based on Guantanamo. An attempt was made in 1916 to establish a combined experimental station for the Army, the Navy, and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at Langley Field, Va., but as this field was unsuitable for naval purposes because of lack of deep-water access for ships, the project was abandoned. On March 1,1916, Captain Bristol was relieved from his duties in the Bureau of Navigation and the direction of aviation actitivities was transferred to the office of the Chief of Naval Operations where an aviation desk was placed under the aide for material. Lieut. C. K. Bronson was detailed to fill this newly created position and continued in the capacity until November, 1916, at which time his death occurred from an aviation accident. Lieutenant Towers was then assigned as assistant for aviation in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations and this officer was occupying this position when the United States declared war against Germany on April 6, 1917. 8