Trinity College Trinity College Digital Repository Senior Theses and Projects Student Works Spring 2018 King Alfred in Early-Modern and Enlightenment Britain: Historiographical Precursors to the Victorian Cult of Alfred Ian King Trinity College, Hartford Connecticut, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at:https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses Part of theEuropean History Commons Recommended Citation King, Ian, "King Alfred in Early-Modern and Enlightenment Britain: Historiographical Precursors to the Victorian Cult of Alfred". Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2018. Trinity College Digital Repository, https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/689 King Alfred in Early-Modern and Enlightenment Britain: Historiographical Precursors to the Victorian Cult of Alfred Ian King History Senior Thesis Advisor: Professor Jonathan Elukin Spring, 2018 !2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………… 3 Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 4 Contextualizing “Alfredism” and the Victorian Cult of Alfred 
 Chapter 1…………………………………………………………………………11 Alfred, Religious Polemic, and Early Anglo-Saxonism in Late Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century England Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………. 30 Alfred, Law, and Government in Early-Modern England Chapter 3……………………………………………………………………………………. 46 Alfred the Scholar King and Oxford University Chapter 4……………………………………………………………………………………. 67 King Alfred and the British Nation Enlightenment Continuations of Early-Modern Alfredism Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….….. 96 Reflections: Toward the Victorian Cult of King Alfred, “The Most Perfect Character in History” Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….. 100 !3 Acknowledgements My first true exposure to the intricacies of insular medieval history came during my term as a visiting student at Trinity College, Dublin in 2016. Although my coursework was mostly in seventh and eighth century Irish hagiography, I found myself most intrigued by the interactions of the Celtic monks of Iona with the Anglo-Saxon world. I soon discovered Asser’s Vita Alfredi, and when it came time to select a topic for my senior thesis, a research question surrounding King Alfred was perhaps more of an inevitability than it was a conscious decision. I am indebted to my advisor, Professor Jonathan Elukin, whose advice throughout the past year helped me to organize my thoughts and dramatically improve my writing skills. I am also grateful for my second reader, Professor Jennifer Regan-Lefebvre, who was supportive of this project from start to finish, and who always encouraged me to present my ideas in an assertive way. While both Professors Elukin and Regan-Lefebvre could probably do without hearing the term “Alfredian” for quite some time (as they are correct in pointing out that it sounds like a pasta dish), their guidance was instrumental in enabling me to complete this project. I would also like to thank Professor Darío Euraque for taking me under his wing over the course of the past year. Professor Euraque’s trademark attention to detail was imparted to me in his historiography class and during my time as his summer research assistant, and it is doubtful that I could have written this thesis without his support. I am also grateful for the Leroy family’s generous undergraduate research fund that enabled me to travel to England in August, 2017. I was fortunate enough to meet with Professor Simon Keynes at Cambridge University, and his expression of interest in my project further convinced me that a study of Alfred’s early-modern and Enlightenment image was a worthwhile undertaking. Finally, I would like to thank my mother, Kim, my father, Jonathan, and my sister, Gillian, for their unwavering support of my peculiar interest in pre-Conquest Britain. I am grateful in advance for their continuing support as I start the next chapter of my life as a postgraduate student of Anglo-Saxon history. !4 Introduction Contextualizing “Alfredism” and the Victorian Cult of Alfred Alfred the Great ruled the English kingdom of Wessex from AD 871 until the end of his life in 899. Over the course of the eleven-hundred year period since King Alfred’s death, the image of the Anglo-Saxon king has experienced a number of complex shifts that will be illuminated throughout this study. During the Victorian period in particular, King Alfred was embraced by a significant proportion of the British population. According to Joanne Parker, the Saxon king “enjoyed something of a ‘cult’ in England during the nineteenth century, and as a national icon was credited with the foundation of just about everything from trial-by-jury to Oxford University”.1 For Parker, Alfred’s nineteenth-century appeal was the result of his association with these foundational myths of distinctly British institutions. Similarly, Barbara Yorke has observed that “by the end of the nineteenth century, Alfred could mean many different things to different people, but was valued by them all for apparently demonstrating that the principles or institutions with which they were concerned were deeply embedded in the English past and basic to the English character”.2 Yorke’s argument illustrates the most common nineteenth-century interpretation of King Alfred’s place in English history, and it is true that the development of Alfred’s cult following was assisted by his supposed embodiment of Victorian values. Alfred’s piety, his scholarly diligence, benevolence, military valor, his alleged role in founding the British nation, and perhaps even his perceived Anglo- 1 Joanne Parker, "Ruling the Waves: Saxons, Vikings, and the Sea in the Formation of an Anglo-British Identity in the Nineteenth Century." In The Sea and Englishness in the Middle Ages: Maritime Narratives, Identity and Culture, edited by Sobecki Sebastian I., 195-206. Boydell and Brewer, 2011, pp. 195. 2 Barbara Yorke, “The Use and Abuse of King Alfred’s Reputation in Later Centuries,” in Alfred the Great: Papers from the Eleventh-Centenary Conferences, ed. Timothy Reuter (Abingdon: Routledge, 2003), pp. 375. !5 Saxon racial purity undoubtedly facilitated the astronomical increase in his popularity which marked the nineteenth century.3 Yet the Victorian cult of Alfred has been thoroughly investigated in the past twenty years by Yorke and Parker (among others), perhaps at the expense of a deeper understanding of Alfred’s image in periods prior. This thesis will therefore not approach the Victorian cult for its own sake, but rather as a means of working backward to explore the reasons for which early-modern and Enlightenment historians became interested in King Alfred. It is important to note that Alfred’s nineteenth-century stature was not a product of the Victorian ethos alone. Rather, from the late sixteenth century, Alfred was invoked to justify institutions identified by Parker and Yorke as results of uniquely Victorian historicism. This study is not a fact-finding investigation intended to distinguish Alfred’s actual accomplishments from apocryphal accounts of the Saxon king’s achievements and personal characteristics. However, a brief description of Alfredian Wessex and the existing contemporaneous evidence seems warranted before shifting to the following discussion of early- modern and Enlightenment Alfred scholarship: Ninth-century England, comprising seven independent kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, was ravaged by constant, unrelenting Viking pillage.4 The compilation of The Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, a collection of annals recounting events worthy of remembrance in the eyes of its monastic authors, began during Alfred’s reign, and provides useful, albeit sparse, evidence for a reliable description of Alfred’s England. According to the Chronicle, a “great heathen army” of Danish Vikings invaded from the east in 865, conquering much of East-Anglia, Mercia, and 3 Joanne Parker, ’England’s Darling’: The Victorian Cult of Alfred the Great (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), pp. 128-161. 4 John D. Niles and Mark Amodio, “Introduction: The Vikings and England." Scandinavian Studies 59, no. 3 (1987): pp. 279. !6 Northumbria with relative ease.5 When Alfred ascended to the throne of Wessex six years later, his kingdom was already under threat of invasion by the Viking army which had encountered such little resistance elsewhere in Britain. Alfred’s great victory at Edington in 878 effectively staved off the immediate Danish threat—causing the Vikings to turn their attention to continental Europe for the time being.6 It was only after Alfred had attained a degree of military security that he initiated the legal and institutional reforms that have earned him such reverence. The details of Alfred’s reign, institutional reforms, military campaigns, diplomatic negotiations, and personal characteristics are recounted in the most important document for Alfred studies: the Vita Alfredi, a biography of the Saxon king compiled during Alfred’s own lifetime by Bishop Asser, a Welsh monk brought to Alfred’s court in or around 885.7 Asser was certainly aware of a few of the other biographies of kings which had been produced during the eighth and ninth centuries on the continent, most notably Einhard’s Life of Charlemagne.8 Supplied with a template on which to base his Vita, Asser composed a biography of Alfred that described the Saxon king’s exploits and accomplishments in extraordinary detail. Beyond Alfred’s military campaigns, Asser notes the king’s admirable piety, his interest in education, his frequent involvement in “judicial hearings”, and his general benevolence as a ruler.9 5 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, translated by James Ingram. Champaign, IL: Boulder, Co.: Project Gutenberg. 6 Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, Asser’s Life of Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London: The Penguin Group, 1983), pp. 22-23. 7 Joanne Parker, ’England’s Darling’: The Victorian Cult of Alfred the Great, pp. 48. 8 Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, Asser’s Life of Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources, pp. 55. 9 Asser, Life of King Alfred, in Keynes and Lapidge, Asser’s Life of Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London: The Penguin Group, 1983), pp. 94-110. !7 However, the entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 901, long thought to be the accurate year of Alfred’s death due to errors in calendrical calculation, reads as follows: “This year died Alfred, the son of Ethelwulf, six nights before the mass of All Saints. He was king over all the English nation, except that part that was under the power of the Danes. He held the government one year and a half less than thirty winters; and then Edward his son took to the government”.10 Apparently contradictory to the king’s nineteenth-century image as founder of the British nation and representative figure of the British ethos, the Chronicle only briefly describes Alfred’s influence and accomplishments before turning to Edward. Where the nineteenth-century historian E.A. Freeman calls the Saxon king “the most perfect character in history”11, the author of the above excerpt does not appear to find the Saxon king particularly noteworthy. It is precisely this conflict between the Chronicle’s presentation of Alfred and the reputation the king achieved during the nineteenth century that has so intrigued the small group of modern historians who have written on the subject. This project was inspired in part by that paradox, and while the “Alfred-mania” that characterized the latter half of the nineteenth century has been thoroughly investigated, I will argue that nineteenth-century claims of Alfred’s unquestioned greatness were not solely products of Victorian values and ideals. Rather, Victorian “Alfredism” simply followed a long tradition of similar Alfred scholarship, as early-modern Anglican clergy, lawyers, and Oxford historians 10 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, translated by James Ingram. Champaign, IL: Boulder, Co.: Project Gutenberg. 11 Edward Augustus Freeman, The History of the Norman Conquest of England, Its Causes and Its Results, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1867), pp. 51. !8 invoked King Alfred in order to advance their own polemical and political agendas.12 Historians of the subsequent Enlightenment period necessarily based their multi-volume national histories on source material created and circulated during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that had been produced with such polemical and political intent. Following the Act of Union of 1707 and the solidification of some form of a British national identity (as opposed to the discrete notion of Englishness inherent to the early-modern historiography cited throughout this thesis), Alfred was increasingly hailed as a foundational figure of many institutions central to that newly-formed identity. Additionally, Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge's observation that “the further development of King Alfred’s reputation is a subject worthy of study in its own right”13 has yielded a small number of Alfredian reception histories published over the past two decades. However, this thesis explores the early-modern and Enlightenment uses of Alfred that predated the Victorian cult, and which contributed to Alfred’s prominence in English—and ultimately, British—historiography. Keynes and Lapidge argue that “it is likely that tales of Alfred’s wars and wisdom circulated orally before the Conquest, and were handed down in popular tradition to later generations, but it is difficult now to distinguish any remnant of such tales from the purely fictional and imaginary elements in the literary accounts of Alfred which survive”.14 Despite the difficulty of tracing the reception of Alfred in post-Conquest and high-medieval England, 12 Barbara Yorke credits John McGavin, Professor Emeritus of English at the University of Southampton, for the introduction of “Alfredism” to scholarly discourse, pp. 361. The term is employed frequently throughout this thesis to denote Alfred studies or historical scholarship related to King Alfred. 13 Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, Asser’s Life of Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London: The Penguin Group, 1983), pp. 46. 14 Ibid., pp. 46. !9 Keynes’ 1999 essay, “The Cult of King Alfred the Great”, presents a wide range of Alfredian source material produced over the eleven-hundred years since the death of the Saxon king. While Keynes’ objective is to distinguish the image of Alfred that developed in post-medieval England from accounts of the king as presented in the Anglo-Saxon sources, his essay invites a deeper analysis of the contemporary conflicts to which early-modern and Enlightenment historians applied King Alfred and the ways in which Alfred’s image was consequently altered. Barbara Yorke’s work on “The Use and Abuse of King Alfred’s Reputation in Later Centuries” was equally influential in the conception of this project. However, it was not the content of Yorke’s essay so much as its basic premise which was instrumental in dictating the direction of this thesis, as her presentation of the “uses and abuses” of the Saxon king’s identity similarly opened the door for a more in-depth study of Alfredian appropriation. While she is clear in asserting that “no one wants to return to the past distortions of Alfred to serve current preoccupations or to the racist associations of Anglo-Saxonism”15, Yorke’s candor regarding the repeated abuses of King Alfred’s identity throughout English history is not found in either Parker’s study or in Keynes’ landmark essay. Despite a number of other representations of the Saxon king outside of academic circles in pre-Victorian Britain16, this project is primarily concerned with developments in Alfredian historiography. Therefore, this thesis will elucidate patterns in the usage of King Alfred in early- modern and Enlightenment historical writing, which, as I will show throughout the succeeding 15 Barbara Yorke, “The Use and Abuse of King Alfred’s Reputation in Later Centuries,”, pp. 380. 16 Alfred features quite heavily in the art and literature of the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. While the artistic and literary representations of Alfred of the period were necessarily products of early- modern and Enlightenment historical writing, a future study of pre-Victorian Alfredism might benefit from an analysis of relevant period art and literature within the context of the polemical and political debates examined in each of the four chapters of this thesis.