The historical dictionaries present essential information on a broad range of sub- jects, including American and world history, art, business, cities, countries, cultures, customs, film, global conflicts, international relations, literature, music, philosophy, religion, sports, and theater. Written by experts, all contain highly informative intro- ductory essays on the topic and detailed chronologies that, in some cases, cover vast historical time periods but still manage to heavily feature more recent events. Brief A–Z entries describe the main people, events, politics, social issues, institu- tions, and policies that make the topic unique, and entries are cross-referenced for ease of browsing. Extensive bibliographies are divided into several general subject areas, providing excellent access points for students, researchers, and anyone want- ing to know more. Additionally, maps, photographs, and appendixes of supplemental information aid high school and college students doing term papers or introductory research projects. In short, the historical dictionaries are the perfect starting point for anyone looking to research in these fields. HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF THE AMERICAS Jon Woronoff, Series Editor Honduras, 2nd edition, by Harvey K. Meyer and Jessie H. Meyer. 1994. Mexico, 2nd edition, by Marvin Àlisky. 2008. Colombia, by Harvey F. Kline. 2012. Panama, by Thomas M. Leonard. 2015. Dominican Republic, by Eric Paul Roorda. 2016. El Salvador, by Orlando J. Perez. 2016. Chile, 4th edition, by Salvatore Bizzarro. 2017. Peru, by Peter F. Klarén. 2017. Venezuela, 3rd edition, by Tomás Straka, Guillermo Guzmán Mirabal, and Alejandro E. Cáceres. 2018. Guatemala, by Michael F. Fry. 2018. Trinidad and Tobago, by Rita Pemberton, Debbie McCollin, Gelien Matthews, and Michael Toussaint. 2018. Costa Rica, new edition, by David Diaz-Arias, Ronny Viales Hurtado, and Juan José Marin Hernández. 2019. Argentina, new edition, by Bernardo A. Duggan and Colin M. Lewis. 2019. Ecuador, by George M. Lauderbaugh. 2019. Haiti, 2nd edition, by Fequiere Vilsaint and Michael R. Hall. 2021. Cuba, 3rd edition, by Antoni Kapcia. 2022. United States, by Kenneth J. Panton. 2022. Historical Dictionary of the United States Kenneth J. Panton ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London Published by Rowman & Littlefield An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 86-90 Paul Street, London EC2A 4NE, United Kingdom Copyright © 2022 by Kenneth J. Panton All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Panton, Kenneth J. (Kenneth John), 1945– author. Title: Historical dictionary of the United States / Kenneth J. Panton. Description: Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield, [2022] | Series: Historical dictionaries of the Americas | Includes bibliographical references. | Summary: “Historical Dictionary of the United States contains a chronology, an introduction, and an extensive bibliography. The dictionary section has more than 400 cross-referenced entries on important personalities as well as aspects of the country’s politics, economy, foreign relations, religion, and culture”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2022005673 (print) | LCCN 2022005674 (ebook) | ISBN 9781538124192 (cloth) | ISBN 9781538124208 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: United States—History—Dictionaries. Classification: LCC E174 .P36 2022 (print) | LCC E174 (ebook) | DDC 973.03—dc23/ eng/20220211 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022005673 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022005674 ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. For Alan Williams, Elizabeth Hands, and Nick Weight, with thanks Contents Editor’s Foreword: Jon Woronoff ix Preface xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii Map xvii Chronology xix Introduction 1 The Dictionary 13 Appendix I: Presidents of the United States 659 Appendix II: First Ladies of the United States 663 Appendix III: Vice Presidents of the United States 667 Appendix IV: U.S. Secretaries of State 671 Appendix V: Chief Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court 675 Appendix VI: U.S. Territorial Expansion 677 Bibliography 681 About the Author 745 vii Editor’s Foreword This series of books was initially intended to cover all countries aside from the United States, but how could it leave out one of the relative late-comers to the world com- munity, first just an assembly of states with sometimes little to bind them, but which grew into the most important country of all? This book shows how it did get started and how it gradually exceeded all of the expectations and probably has many other surprises in store for us. It covers, among other things, a long list of presidents start- ing with George Washington and continuing into the early years of the administration of “Joe” Biden, namely from some of the most innovative—and including a few who added little—to the oldest but amazingly sprightly 46th president. And although the political parties were few in number, they managed to include in their ranks an amazing variety of opinions and persons with an amazing range of experiences. All of this, the persons and the issues, is included in this book, which we hope and indeed assume will just be the first on the subject. Of course, along with the comprehensive entries that are the core of these books, and that are particularly important here, there is an introduction to provide an overview, a chronology to keep track of things, a list of acronyms since many of the organizations are known best by a few letters, and of course a bibliography. Obviously, since this is such a broad subject, the bibliography is particularly important to point readers in the right direction. It does take a rather broad view of the United States to compile such a book, so we are fortunate once again to have as author Kenneth J. Panton. Ken started off as a professor in the United Kingdom, where he taught at London Guildhall Univer- sity, later taking charge of the University of Southern Mississippi’s British Studies Program. Our readers already know him well from other books in our various series, namely the Historical Dictionary of the United Kingdom (which he co-authored), the Historical Dictionary of London, the Historical Dictionary of the British Monarchy, and the Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. We certainly hope he will be on hand for further works. Jon Woronoff Series Editor ix