High Temperature Processing of Milk and Milk Products High Temperature Processing of Milk and Milk Products Hilton C. Deeth School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Michael J. Lewis Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK This edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. The right of Hilton C. Deeth & Michael J. Lewis to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty The publisher and the authors make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this works was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising here from. Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data [9781118460504] Cover Design: Wiley Cover image: Leong Thian Fu / EyeEm/Gettyimages Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 v Contents About the Authors xv Preface xvii List of Abbreviations xxi 1 History and Scope of the Book 1 1.1 Setting the Scene 1 1.2 Scope of the Book 7 1.3 Reasons for Heating Foods 7 1.4 Brief History of Sterilisation Processes 8 References 12 2 Heat Treatments of Milk – Thermisation and Pasteurisation 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Thermisation 16 2.3 Pasteurisation 17 2.3.1 Introduction 17 2.3.2 Historical Background 18 2.3.3 Pasteurisation Equipment 21 2.3.3.1 Holder or Batch Heating 21 2.3.3.2 Continuous Heating 22 2.3.4 Process Characterisation 24 2.3.4.1 D‐value 24 2.3.4.2 z‐value 25 2.3.4.3 Pasteurisation Unit (PU) 25 2.3.4.4 p* 26 2.3.5 Processing Conditions 27 2.3.6 Changes During Pasteurisation 28 2.3.6.1 Microbiological Aspects 28 2.3.6.2 Enzyme Inactivation 29 2.3.6.3 Other Changes 31 2.3.7 Changes During Storage 32 2.3.7.1 Changes Due to Post‐Pasteurisation Contamination (PPC) 32 2.3.7.2 Other Changes 33 2.3.8 Pasteurisation of Other Milk‐Based Products 34 References 36 vi Contents 3 Heat Treatments of Milk – ESL, UHT and in‐Container Sterilisation 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Some Important Definitions 41 3.2.1 Q 41 10 3.2.2 Bacterial Indices, B* and F 42 0 3.2.3 Chemical Index, C* 43 3.3 Extended Shelf‐Life (ESL) Milk Processing 44 3.3.1 ESL Milk by Thermal Treatment 44 3.3.1.1 ESL Milk by Thermal Treatment Plus Aseptic Packaging 48 3.3.2 ESL Milk by Microfiltration Plus HTST Heat Treatment 49 3.3.3 ESL Milk by Thermal Treatment Plus Bactofugation 50 3.3.4 ESL Milk by Thermal Treatment Plus an Antibacterial Agent 50 3.3.5 ESL Milk by Thermal Treatment Plus a Non‐Thermal Technology Treatment 50 3.3.5.1 UV irradiation 50 3.3.5.2 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) Technology 51 3.3.5.3 Gamma‐Irradiation 51 3.3.6 ESL Milk by Multiple Thermal Treatments 51 3.4 Sterilisation 52 3.4.1 Introduction 52 3.4.2 UHT Processing 54 3.4.2.1 Introduction 54 3.4.2.2 UHT Principle 1 54 3.4.2.3 UHT Principle 2 55 3.4.3 In‐Container Sterilisation 58 3.4.3.1 Conventional Retort Processes 58 3.4.3.2 Alternative Retort Processes 60 References 61 4 Microbiological Aspects 65 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Bacteria in Raw Milk 65 4.2.1 Non‐Spore‐Forming Psychrotrophic Bacteria and their Heat‐Resistant Enzymes 68 4.2.2 Spore‐Forming Bacteria 69 4.2.2.1 Non‐Pathogenic Spore‐Formers 69 4.2.2.2 Pathogenic Spore‐Formers 71 4.3 Heat Inactivation of Bacteria 78 4.4 Microflora in Processed Milks 80 4.4.1 Pasteurised Milk 80 4.4.2 ESL Milk 83 4.4.2.1 Microbiological Issues Related to the Heating Process 83 4.4.2.2 Optimum Processing Conditions for High Microbiological Quality and Safety of ESL Milk 84 4.4.2.3 Microbiological Issues Associated with Post Process Contamination 84 4.4.3 UHT Milk 85 4.4.3.1 Spores in UHT Milk Produced From Fresh Milk 85 Contents vii 4.4.3.2 Spores in Milk Powders Used for UHT Reconstituted Milk 87 4.4.3.3 Spores in Non‐Milk Ingredients Used in UHT Milk Products 88 4.4.3.4 Other Microbial Contamination 89 4.4.4 In‐Container Sterilised Milk 90 4.5 Sterilisation of Equipment and Packaging to Prevent Microbial Contamination of UHT Products 90 References 91 5 UHT Processing and Equipment 103 5.1 The UHT Process 103 5.2 Heating 104 5.2.1 Steam‐/Hot‐Water‐Based Heating Systems 104 5.2.1.1 Direct Heating 104 5.2.1.2 Indirect Heating 109 5.2.1.3 Pre‐Heating 111 5.2.1.4 Comparison of Indirect and Direct UHT Plants 113 5.2.1.5 Combination Direct–Indirect Systems 113 5.2.1.6 Scraped‐Surface Heat Exchanger Systems 115 5.2.1.7 Pilot‐Scale Equipment 117 5.2.1.8 Engineering Aspects 123 5.2.2 Electrically Based Heating Systems 146 5.2.2.1 Electrical Tube Heating 146 5.2.2.2 Ohmic Heating 146 5.2.2.3 Microwave Heating 148 5.3 Homogenisation 150 5.4 Deaeration 154 5.5 Aseptic Packaging 155 5.5.1 Types of Packaging 155 5.5.1.1 Paperboard Cartons 155 5.5.1.2 Plastic Bottles 156 5.5.1.3 Pouches 157 5.5.1.4 Bulk Aseptic Packaging 158 5.5.2 Sterilisation of Packaging 158 5.5.3 Establishing and Maintaining a Sterile Environment 158 5.5.4 Aseptic Package Integrity 159 5.5.5 Validation of Aseptic Packaging Operations 159 5.6 Plant Cleaning and Sanitisation 161 5.6.1 Introduction 161 5.6.2 Rinsing 161 5.6.3 Water−Product Changeover 162 5.6.4 Cleaning 162 5.6.5 Methods of Measuring Cleaning Effectiveness 164 5.6.6 Kinetics of Cleaning 166 5.6.7 Disinfecting and Sterilising 167 5.6.7.1 Use of Heat 167 5.6.7.2 Use of Chemicals 168 References 168 viii Contents 6 Changes During Heat Treatment of Milk 177 6.1 Chemical 177 6.1.1 pH and Ionic Calcium 177 6.1.1.1 Effects of Addition of Phosphates, Citrate and EDTA 181 6.1.2 Mineral Salts 182 6.1.2.1 Mineral Partitioning and Associated Changes 182 6.1.2.2 Addition of Mineral Salts 183 6.1.3 Proteins 184 6.1.3.1 Whey Protein Denaturation 184 6.1.3.2 Coagulation of Caseins 188 6.1.3.3 Protein Cross‐Linking 188 6.1.3.4 Dissociation of Caseins from the Casein Micelle 189 6.1.3.5 Effects on Enzymes 190 6.1.3.6 Effect on Rennet Coagulation of Casein 193 6.1.4 Lactose 195 6.1.4.1 Lactosylation and the Maillard Reaction 195 6.1.4.2 Lactulose Formation 198 6.1.5 Vitamins 200 6.1.6 Flavour 201 6.1.6.1 Volatile Sulfur Compounds 204 6.1.6.2 Monocarbonyl Compounds 207 6.1.7 Chemical Heat Indices 208 6.2 Physical Changes 212 6.2.1 Heat Stability 212 6.2.1.1 Measurement of Heat Stability 212 6.2.1.2 Is HCT a Good Predictor of Heat Stability in UHT Treatment? 214 6.2.1.3 Stability to UHT Processing and Some Comparisons with In‐Container Sterilisation 216 6.2.1.4 Is Ethanol Stability a Good Predictor of Heat Stability in  UHT Treatment? 220 6.2.2 Fouling 222 6.2.2.1 Introduction 222 6.2.2.2 Terms Used in Fouling 224 6.2.2.3 Measurement of Fouling 225 6.2.2.4 Factors Affecting Fouling 229 6.2.2.5 Fouling Mechanism 235 6.2.2.6 Methods to Reduce Fouling 236 6.2.2.7 Fouling in Other Products 238 6.2.2.8 Biofilms 238 6.3 Kinetics and Computer Modelling 240 References 242 7 Changes During Storage of UHT Milk 261 7.1 Chemical Changes 263 7.1.1 pH 263 7.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen Content 264