SPRINGER BRIEFS IN GEOGRAPHY Mary J. Thornbush  Sylvia E. Thornbush Heritage Stone Conservation in Urban Churchyards Merging Necrogeography, Historical Archaeology, and Geomorphology SpringerBriefs in Geography SpringerBriefs in Geography presents concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical applications across the fields of physical, environmental and human geography. It publishes compact refereed monographs under the editorial super- visionofaninternationaladvisoryboardwiththeaimtopublish8to12weeksafter acceptance. Volumes are compact, 50 to 125 pages, with a clear focus. The series covers a range of content from professional to academic such as: timely reports of state-of-the art analytical techniques, bridges between new research results, snapshots of hot and/or emerging topics, elaborated thesis, literature reviews, and in-depth case studies. The scope of the series spans the entire field of geography, with a view to significantly advance research. 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Thornbush Oriel College Schoolof History, Classics University of Oxford andArchaeology Oxford University of Edinburgh UK Edinburgh UK ISSN 2211-4165 ISSN 2211-4173 (electronic) SpringerBriefs inGeography ISBN978-3-319-76362-0 ISBN978-3-319-76363-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76363-7 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018934380 ©TheAuthor(s)2018 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerInternationalPublishingAG partofSpringerNature Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface World heritage monuments located in urban environments are susceptible to degradationanddeteriorationfromexposuretopollution.Thereismuchthatcanbe gleaned from headstones as surviving heritage stone that contain historical infor- mation, and they have already been used to decipher trends in air pollution. This brief is based on field research since 2006 in urban churchyards located along a transect towards the British East Coast. It examines urban parish churchyards in a selectionofcitiestocapturetheremainingrecord,aswellasrecordandinvestigate the existing contemporary record, based on inscriptions and motifs appearing on headstonepanels.Theworkwasperformedbyacross-disciplinaryteamcomprising a historical archaeologist and geomorphologist (physical geographer) interested in collaborating on a joint effort to examine not only what remains of the material recordbutalsotoassessthecurrentstateofthisrecordanditslikelihoodofsurvival and sustainability as part of heritage stone for England and Scotland, UK. A long-term project spanning a decade (2006–2017) allowed for some cross- temporal comparisons of the condition of the headstones and the integrity of the overall record. The findings indicate that sites located in polluted parts of urban- scapes are more susceptible to damage, but a variety of environmental factors contribute to the current state of the headstones examined in this study. This is especially evident when coastal and interior (inland) sites are compared and when central locations are compared with more remote churchyards situated within city centres.Age,ofcourse,playsapartinthebreakdownoftheserockmonumentsand is considered alongside evidence of soiling and weathering. In addition, lithology and stone type affect decay, with limestone markers apparent in England and Scotland mainly comprising sandstone headstones. The sustainability of these markers as part of cultural stone is questionable, with evidence of change at the annual scale that can easily be augmented at longer temporal scales. Oxford, UK Mary J. Thornbush Edinburgh, UK Sylvia E. Thornbush v Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to various people during the fieldwork at the parish churches mentioned in this study, who granted us access permission and provided us with valuable inputs and materials. vii Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Research Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Urban Sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.1 Introduction to the Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.1.1 City Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2 Methods Used in this Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2.1 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.3 Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.3.1 Oxford, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.3.2 Scarborough, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.3.3 Inverness, Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3 Research Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.1 Necrogeography and Headstones Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.2 Lichens on Headstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.3 Other Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4 Assessing the Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.1 Site Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4.2 Field Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4.3 Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 5 Stylistic Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 5.1 Headstone Features: Motifs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 5.2 Headstone Features: Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 ix x Contents 5.3 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 6 Current State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 6.1 Oxford Churchyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 6.2 Old High Kirk, Inverness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 6.3 St. Mary’s Churchyard, Scarborough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 7 Conservation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 79 About the Authors Dr.MaryJ.Thornbush isaMemberofOrielCollegeattheUniversityofOxford, England, UK and currently Research Fellow at Cardiff University in Wales, UK. ShewasuntilrecentlyAdjunctProfessorinGeography(since2014)andAssociate MemberoftheEnvironmentalSustainabilityResearchCentre(since2015)atBrock University, Canada. She has been working on the Weathering of Headstones in British Churchyards project since 2007 (with preliminary research in 2006), while alsoimplementingtheIvyonWallsproject(2006–2007)aspartoftheOxfordRock BreakdownLaboratoryattheUniversityofOxford,UK.Sheobtainedherdoctorate from the University of Oxford (Oriel College) in 2006. She has nearly 70 publi- cations in academic journals and books, including edited volumes, conference proceeding, briefs and encyclopaedias, since 2004. She has participated in more than 25 conferences and workshops to disseminate her research since 2000. Her academic career has brought her to various universities in North America and Europe, where she has lectured in geomorphology and physical geography since 2008. SylviaE.Thornbush isaHistoricalArchaeologistattheUniversityofEdinburgh (Scotland, UK) since 2007. Her specific research interests include mortuary remains, the archaeology of death, feminist archaeology and underwater archae- ology.Shehaspublishedininterdisciplinaryjournals,suchaspartofaspecialissue on Geomorphology, Culture, and Place in the journal Appl Geogr (2013), and co-authored books for Bentham Science Publishers, including Photographs across time: studies in urban landscapes (2015) and Changing deathscapes: headstones in urban British churchyards (2018). xi