Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo Hello, Honey: The Pragmatics of Greeting in the Cantigas d' Amigo Rip Cohen The Johns Hopkins University Centro de Literatura Portuguesa, Universidade de Coimbra To establish a praxis, rules are not enough; we need examples. Our rules leave backdoors open, and the praxis must speak for itself. –Wittgenstein Some believe that the cantigas d' amigo are “static,” that nothing much happens in them and that, at most, they represent states of emotion, or a girl and her moods.1 But I would say (adapting what Aristotle wrote about tragedy) that in a cantiga d' amigo what is represented is not primarily persons or emotions, but rather praxis and bios: action and life. Logically enough, actions are related to the story and to the speaking actor and the addressee, who are taken (almost always) from the same set. This set consists of a girl, her mother, the girl's female friend(s), whom I shall call the girlfriend, and a boy. There is another persona in this drama: an other girl, often called simply outra––a rival for the boy's affections; but though she is mentioned in nearly forty texts, she does not appear “onstage” as speaker or addressee.2 Though the set of speaking personae might seem small, it is larger by a factor of four than what we find in the cantigas d' amor. And it is this plurality of speakers and of possible combinations of speaker and addressee that is partly responsible for the 1 This paper, given during the Study Day on the Galician-Portuguese Lyric at the University of Oxford on 19 November 2004 (my thanks to Dr. Stephen Parkinson), had been scheduled for publication in the Papers of the Medieval Hispanic Research Seminar, but that did not materialize. Numbering and texts of cantigas d’ amigo are from Cohen 2003 (in Guilhade 18, v. 8 que <ant’> ouvesse is a new proposal). Angle brackets have been removed from refrains and punctuation altered. Tils have been added where historical phonology expects them and thirteenth century manuscripts provide them. Translations are from Cohen 2010. The bibliography has not been updated. Just to have included my own subsequent publications on pragmatics in this genre would have required rewriting this essay, which was in many ways the seed of what followed. 2 On the other girl, see Cohen and Corriente 2002, where all her textual occurences are given in appendix. In two songs (Nuno Treez 4 and Johan Airas 39) we hear the words of a messenger and in about 30 cantigas there is cited discourse in which the speaker is usually boy or girl. 1 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo “dramatic” quality that some have seen in the cantigas d' amigo (beginning with Lang 1894: xcvii). The girl can speak to (or with) the girlfriend(s), her mother, or the boy (or to nobody in particular). If the girl is not the speaker, she is the addressee, and either her mother or her girlfriend speaks to (or with) her. The boy speaks only in dialogues with the girl. And there are in addition a dozen texts with a narrative voice, which nearly always introduces a girl speaker. So some possibilities are not used, at least not onstage. Neither the girl's girlfriend nor the boy speaks to the girl's mother, and the mother does not speak to either of them. The girl's girlfriend does not speak to the boy, and vice-versa (although the girlfriend in Dinis 23 cites what the boy said to her: Ai senhor, id' a mha senhor rogar, etc.). Why are these combinations not found? Well, since the girl is always either speaker or addressee, there is no room onstage for the girlfriend or the boy to speak to the mother (or vice- versa), or for the girlfriend to speak to the boy, since any of these combinations would leave the girl out, and she (like the protagonist of early Tragedy) must always be onstage. So what kinds of action are represented? Those performed by any of the speaking personae during the course of an amorous relationship between girl and boy. All told, there are a few dozen kinds of action, depending on what criteria we use, and where we draw the lines, which are sometimes difficult to draw (Wittgenstein 1992: 116-21 [§73- 76]). I think it may be possible, eventually, to describe all the actions represented and work out the rules and customs of social interaction. In the meantime, by analyzing kinds of action, we can resolve old problems and also turn up new ones. To show what I mean, I shall take as an example the act of greeting someone who is arriving. Greeting tends to be mutual, and can take place on neutral turf, but if someone comes to somebody else's “space” (as anthropologists and Californians say), there are two different acts of greeting, one spoken by the welcomer and the other by the person who is arriving. Naturally, the manner of greeting varies as a function of numerous factors in the situation, and every situation has its story. 2 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo In ancient Greek and Roman love poetry, a greeting to an arriving traveler is called a prosphonetikon (Cairns), and this is a well-known kind of speech, a genre in the sense in which the word is used in classical studies. But since the cantiga d' amigo is itself regularly called a “genre” by scholars of medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric, we need another term, which nevertheless corresponds to “genre” in this narrow sense. I shall use the expression speech-action, a compromise between speech-act (coined by J. L. Austin 1986) and language-game (a translation of Sprachspiel [Wittgenstein 1992: 11-13 [§23-27] 29-51 [§60-133]). Both these terms are meant to stress that speech performs action, that words do things. Neither concept has an exact definition, because the subject does not allow for too much exactitude. Wittgenstein insisted that the kinds of Sprachspiele in natural language are innumberable and can only be described, not defined. Austin observed that certain speech-acts are highly formulaic, and tried to determine the kind of speech-act in an utterance according to its force (illocutionary force). He looked for the force in key words and specific features of morphology and syntax, and also attempted to specify what conditions must obtain for everything to work right. For instance, in welcoming someone I would not normally say “I would have welcomed you,” or “I will have welcomed you,” whereas “Welcome” works just fine. But it is not enough to use the right words with the right grammar; I also need to say them in the right circumstances. If I arrive in Oxford, and Dr. Parkinson walks up to me, and before he can speak I say “Stephen, welcome to Oxford,” that would be odd, it could only be taken as a joke or perhaps as proof that I am insane, but Dr. Parkinson would likely infer that I meant to say “Hello” and was just doing it in a strange way. So it is easy to see that a speech-act, such as welcoming, depends for its successful execution not just on the meaning of words, phrases and sentences, but on situation and setting, social customs, the identity and roles of participants and the relationship between them, their expectations and powers of poesis and of inference. At any rate, Wittgenstein and Austin agree that greeting is a kind of language- game or speech-act. Here I shall consider the greeting addressed to someone who is arriving, the prosphonetikon. This term, though it may not trip off the tongue, is more 3 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo precise than what we find in studies of Galician-Portuguese lyric. Still, it needs refining in several respects. Some prosphonetika directly represent the action of greeting as taking place in the present moment, while in others this action is narrated, anticipated or imagined. And individual examples differ from one another pragmatically and rhetorically. For present purposes, I shall limit myself to cantigas where the action is directly represented. When a girl greets a boy who is returning, she sometimes does so warmly (Fernan Rodriguez de Calheiros 4, Vaasco Praga de Sandin 1, Johan Soarez Coelho 7, Juião Bolseiro 15, Nuno Treez 1, Dinis 47), sometimes with a mixture of hot and cold (Martin de Caldas 5), and other times with dry ice (Fernand’ Esquio 4) and even outright rejection (Bolseiro 6, Johan Baveca 8, Dinis 27). Here is a fairly warm greeting in a cantiga by Calheiros (4): Direi vos agor', amigo, camanho temp' é passado, que non pudi veer cousa ond' ouvesse gasalhado des que vos de mi partistes tães ora que me vistes. Des oi mais andarei leda, meu amigo, pois vos vejo 5 ca muit' á que non vi cousa que mi tolhesse desejo des que vos de mi partistes tães ora que me vistes. Des oi mais non vos vaades, se amor queredes migo, ca ja mais non ar fui ledo meu coraçon, meu amigo, 10 des que vos de mi partistes tães ora que me vistes. I’ll tell you now, my friend, all this time that’s passed, I couldn’t see anything that I could take pleasure from Since you went away from me Until now when you saw me. From now on I’ll be happy, my friend, since I can see you, 4 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo ’Cause for so long I saw nothing to calm my desire Since you went away from me Until now when you saw me. From now on don’t go away, if you want my love, Because my heart was never happy again, my friend, Since you went away from me Until just now when you saw me. The fact that he has just arrived is written into the text (as it must be, for us to identify an utterance as a prosphonetikon). And so too is her despair during his absence and her joy at seeing him. But how do we read Des oi mais non vos vaades, se amor queredes migo (v. 9)? Although it might seem a hyperbolic complaint and so an expression of love, she says that if he leaves again their relationship will be over. Taking her at her word, we have a conditioned threat within the greeting. The girl may also extend an even less warm welcome to her boy, as in this dialogue by Esquio (4): –Que adubastes, amigo, alá en Lug' u andastes ou qual é essa fremosa de que vós vos namorastes? –Direi volo eu, senhora, pois m' én tan ben preguntastes: o amor que eu levei de Santiago a Lugo, esse mh adux' e esse mh adugo. 5 Que adubastes, amigo, u tardastes noutro dia, ou qual é essa fremosa que vos tan ben parecia? –Direi volo eu, senhora, pois i tomades perfia: o amor que eu levei de Santiago a Lugo, esse mh adux' e esse mh adugo. 10 Que adubastes, amigo, lá u avedes tardado, ou qual é essa fremosa de que sodes namorado? –Direi volo eu, senhora, pois me avedes preguntado: 5 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo o amor que eu levei de Santiago a Lugo, 15 esse mh adux' e esse mh adugo. –What did you get done, friend, there in Lugo where you wandered, Or who’s that gorgeous girl that you fell in love with? –I’ll tell you, lady, since you’ve asked me so kindly: The love that I took from Santiago to Lugo, Its that love that I brought and that I bring. –What did you get done, friend, the other day when you tarried, Or who’s that gorgeous girl that seemed to you so pretty? –I’ll tell you, lady, since you’re insisting: The love that I took from Santiago to Lugo, It’s that love that I brought and that I bring. –What did you get done, friend, there where you tarried, Or who’s that gorgeous girl for whom you’ve fallen? –I’ll tell you, lady, since you’ve asked me: The love that I took from Santiago to Lugo, It’s that love that I brought and that I bring. The girl either has direct evidence or else takes the boy's tarrying as proof that he is in love with an other girl in Lugo. She greets him with an accusation of infidelity. He defends himself, although somewhat enigmatically, implying that it is her he loves and that he has been true.3 His is both the speech of an arriving traveler, an epibaterion, and a defense against the charges, a defensio:4 “The love I took from Santiago to Lugo, that is 3 Two marginal glosses: (1) Essa fremosa, which is mockery in the guise of praise, is the only time a girl “praises” her rival's appearance; (2) When Propertius (3.23.12-16) imagines what Cynthia might have written on his lost writing-tablets, one of the messages is: Irascor quoniam es, lente, moratus heri. An tibi nescio quae visa est formosior? (“I am angry at you; you took your time and arrived late yesterday. Did some girl strike you as lovelier than me?”). She too asks if her boy's delay was caused by some fremosa. Is she just teasing? And what about the girl in Fernand’ Esquio 4? 4 Or escondit; see Brea and Gradín 1998: 239-46. 6 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo the love that I have brought and that I bring.” (Nothing like a straight talker!).5 And what variety of welcome does the girl in this song by Martin de Caldas give her boy (5, vv. 1-4)? Ai meu amig' e lume destes meus olhos e coita do meu coraçon, por que tardastes á mui gran sazon? non mho neguedes, se vos valha Deus O my friend and the light of these eyes Of mine, and the sorrow of my heart, Why did you tarry for so long? Don’t hide it from me, so help you God After a series of amorous vocatives, she demands to know why the boy has taken so long. She goes on to insinuate that an other girl has detained him (v. 6): Dizede mi quen mi vos fez tardar. Then she warns that he will lose her if hides the truth (vv. 15-16): e, se mi vos negardes esta vez, / perder vos edes comigo poren. This greeting, which includes both an accusation and a threat, straddles the border between friendly and unfriendly, between what we might call positively and negatively charged. A girl can greet her boy by renouncing him. Here is the last strophe from a cantiga by Bolseiro (6, vv. 19-24): Non mi á mais vosso preito mester e ide vos ja, par nostro senhor, e non venhades nunca u eu for pois começastes con outra molher; com<o> ousastes vĩir ant' os meus olhos, amigo, por amor de Deus?! I don’t want your pledges any more. Just go away right now, by Our Lord! And wherever I am, never come there again! 5 But the last verse is corrupt in the manuscripts and both text and meaning are uncertain. 7 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo Since you’ve taken up with another woman, How do you dare to come before My eyes, friend, for the love of God? The girl tells the boy, who has just arrived, to go away and never come back, since he has taken up with another girl. This greeting is turned upside down: this is an inverse prosphonetikon. At the same time it constitutes a renuntiatio amoris, the kind of speech- action in which someone renounces love or rejects a particular beloved or both.6 If a girl has already renounced her boy, and then he returns, asking to be taken back, the greeting occurs in different circumstances. The girl can, if she so chooses, forgive him in and through the act of greeting, as she does in this dialogue between girl and boy by Martin de Padrozelos (3)7 –Amig', avia queixume de vós, e quero mho perder, pois vẽestes a meu poder. –Ai mha senhor e meu lume, se de min queixum' avedes, 5 por Deus, que o melhoredes. –Tant' era vossa queixosa que jurei en San Salvador que nunca vos fezess' amor. –Ai mha senhor mui fremosa, 10 se de min queixum' avedes, por Deus, que o melhoredes. –Amig', en poder sodes meu, 6 See Cohen 1987. Reali 1964: 36-37, editor of Bolseiro, says the whole composition is about the boy's treason and unworthiness; but though this may be the girl's reason for renouncing, it is not the kind of action represented. Reali recognizes, however, that the boy wants to be reinstated: “desideroso di ristablire i legami già solti;” and says that the girl “si difende dal ritorno di fiamma.” This is true, but Reali misses both the “greeting” and the renunciation, even going so far as to say that the climax in strophe IV “denuncia una certa stanchezza nella vena poetica di Bolseyro.” 7 Cf. Reimon Gonçalvez 1 (on which see Cohen 1991). 8 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo se m' eu de vós quiser vingar, mais quero mi vos perdõar. 15 –Ai senhor, por al vos rog' eu: se de min queixum' avedes, por Deus, que o melhoredes de min, que mal dia naci, senhor, se volo mereci. 20 –Friend I had a complaint About you, and I want to end it, Since you’ve come into my power. –Oh my lady and my light, If you have a complaint about me, By God, may you resolve it! –I had such a complaint about you That I swore in San Salvador That I’d never grant you love. –Oh my very lovely lady, If you have a complaint about me, By God, may you resolve it! –Friend, you are in my power If I want to get back at you, But I want to forgive you. –Oh lady, I ask you something else: If you have a complaint about me, By God, may you resolve it! Poor me, what a bad day I was born, Lady, if I deserved that of you! 9 Poetics of the Cantigas d’ Amigo Here, to welcome is to forgive, and to forgive is to say “yes” to a plea for reconciliation. In greeting the boy, the girl reverses a decision that she had made (vv. 8-9): jurei en San Salvador / que nunca vos fezess' amor. Had she wished to, she could have taken vengeance (v. 14): se m' eu de vos quiser vingar; but she chooses to have mercy (v. 15): quero mi vos perdõar. The boy protests his innocence; he has done nothing wrong (refrain and fiinda).8 But what if the girl has already renounced the boy and does not welcome him back and forgive him? In Johan Baveca 8 a girl greets her boy like this: Amig', entendo que non ouvestes poder d' alhur viver, e vẽestes a mha mesura, e non vos val ren, ca tamanho pesar mi fezestes que jurei de vos nunca fazer ben. 5 Quisera m' eu non aver jurado, tanto vos vejo vĩir coitado a mha mesura, e que prol vos ten? ca, u vos fostes sen meu mandado, jurei que nunca vos fezesse ben. 10 Por sempre sodes de mi partido e non vos á prol de seer vĩido a mha mesura, e gran mal m' é én, ca jurei, tanto que fostes ido, que nunca ja mais vos fezesse ben. 15 Friend, I understand that you could not Live somewhere else and you have come To my mercy, and it does you no good, Because you made me so angry That I swore I would never grant you a favor. 8 See Cohen 1994 on the reconciliation as a Sprachspiel. 10