JEROME LECTURES,EIGHTEEN Hellenism in Late Antiquity THOMAS SPENCER JEROME LECTURES G. W. Bowersock Ann Arbor THE UNIVERSIT Y OF MICHIGAN PRESS Acknowledgments Copyright © by The University of Michigan 1990 All rights reserved According to the will of Thomas Spencer Jerome, the lectures he endowed are to be Published in the United States of America by delivered both at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and at the American The University of Michigan Press Academy in Rome. No lecturer could be assigned more agreeable settings than these. Manufactured in the United States of America My fortnight in Ann Arbor in February of 1989 was the purest joy for me, as I 1993 1992 1991 1990 4 3 2 1 savored the hospitality and learning of one of the great centers of classical studies in the world. The department's chairman, Ludwig Koenen, matched in the warmth of his welcome and the acuity of his observations the kind and perceptive treatment Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data accorded to me by John H. D'Arms, dean of the Rackham Graduate School, who issued the original invitation to deliver the Jerome Lectures. The colleagues and Bowersock, G. W. (Glen Warren), 1936- students of these two scholars enriched my life in Ann Arbor beyond measure, and I Hellenism in Late Antiquity / G. W. Bowersock. p. cm. — (Jerome lectures : 18th ser.) think not only of the Department of Classics but equally of the Departments of Includes bibliographical references. History and Near Eastern Studies, and the program in Art and Archaeology. I must ISBN 0-472-09418-1 (alk. paper) also mention for special thanks David Potter and Dean Homer Rose. 1. Hellenism. 2. Christianity—Early church, ca. 30-600. At Rome, in late April and early May of 1989, in the enchanting atmosphere of 3. Paganism—Mediterranean Region—History. I. Title. II. Series. DF240.B69 1990 the American Academy, I enjoyed the wonderfully stimulating company of many 292'.009182'2—dc20 89-20573 friends from many countries. The Academy's director, Joseph Connors, was as help- CIP ful and encouraging throughout as Charles Babcock, who attended marvelously to every detail as professor-in-charge for Classical Studies. Their staff was a miracle of unobtrusive efficiency. I was also lucky enough to be at the Academy at the same time as my friends Herbert Bloch and Paul Zanker, from whom I never cease to learn and to draw inspiration. Finally, I want to express my deep appreciation to Colin Day, director of the University of Michigan Press, which has been the publisher of the Jerome Lectures from the start. Dr. Day's steady support and accommodation in leading an inevitably fretting author to publication has meant more to me than he can realize. 26 June 1989 G. W. B. Contents Abbreviations ix Prologue xi I Paganism and Greek Culture 1 II The Idolatry of Holiness 15 III The Syrian Tradition 29 IV Dionysus and His World 41 V Greek Literature in Egypt 55 m VI Hellenism and Islam 71 Plates 83 Index of Written Sources 101 General Index 105 Abbreviations ADA] Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan BAR British Archaeological Reports BASP Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists BCH Bulletin de correspondance hellénique BMC Cat. Catalogue of the Coins in the British Museum CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum CSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium FHG Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies Israel Exploration Journal IE] IG Inscriptiones Graecae JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies ]RS Journal of Roman Studies PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly PG Patrologia Graeca REG Revue des études grecques SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum SIG3 Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (3d ed.) SNG, ANS Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Collection of the American Numismatic Society ZDMG Zeitschrift der Morgenländischen Gesellschaft ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik Prologue Over many years, as I carried out more specialized work on the history of various parts of the eastern Mediterranean world in the Roman and early Byzantine empires, I came up repeatedly against the frustrating but obvi- ously crucial problem of what Greek culture outside of Greece actually meant—in Asia Minor, in Syria, in Arabia, in Palestine, in Egypt. In all these places the Greek language and traditions adapted in some way to ancient and powerful indigenous cultures that were themselves subject to new pres- sures from Rome and later from the new Rome, Christian Constantinople. The problem of Greek culture abroad has conventionally been cast in terms of Hellenization, which seems to imply the deliberate or inevitable imposition of Greek ways over local ones. Hellenization in this sense could be thoroughgoing or superficial, and by late antiquity most of it seemed to fall into the latter category. Yet Hellenism, by contrast, survived: for one thing it was a concept the ancients talked about, whereas Hellenization was not. Hellenism did not necessarily threaten local cultures, nor was it imperi- alistic. It seemed to me that Hellenization was a modern idea, reflecting modern forms of cultural domination. Accordingly, I have tried to open up a new approach to Greek culture in the Christian empire, to determine why and how it survived as it did and why it was so regularly identified with paganism (despite the indignation of certain fathers of the Church). The study of late Hellenism reveals a pagan culture that is far from moribund. It is rather a living culture responding as sensitively to its Christian environment as Christianity itself responded to the pagan world in which it grew to maturity. Paganism in late antiquity has invariably been described in terms that presuppose its gradual unimportance: Untergang, Ausgang, la fin (du pa- ganisme), twilight, and death, to name only a few well-known expressions. But this cannot be right. Discomfort has shown up in several places recently. Ramsay MacMullen, in an epilogue on "the manner of death of paganism," quotes Peter Brown with approval: "The historian of the late Roman church xii Hellenism in Late Antiquity is in constant danger of taking the end of paganism for granted."1 And Garth Fowden, in reviewing Robin Lane Fox's Pagans and Christians, which brings the subject more or less to the point at which my investigation of Hellenism begins, remarks perceptively, "Late paganism is still in urgent need of students, just to bring our understanding of its literary remains to the level already enjoyed by the patristic tradition."2 Paganism and Greek Culture Hellenism provides, I believe, a unique instrument for putting this whole issue into a clearer perspective. It is gratifying to observe that Frank Clover and Stephen Humphreys, in their introductory remarks to a recent collection of valuable papers on late antiquity, seem to presuppose this view when they On March 1, 1843, a certain Dr. Tattam deposited in the British Museum write, "Under Constantinople's aegis, the imperial Hellenism, decidedly some manuscript pages that he had acquired from a monastery in the Wadi Greek in form and outlook, replaced the old Graeco-Roman culture as the dominant way of life in the Roman Empire."3 This is certainly true of the Natrun in Egypt. The pages were in quarto size and written in Syriac in two columns each. Further depositions from the same manuscript through the culture of the eastern Mediterranean, with which the present work is con- generosity of another collector in 1847 and 1850 brought the total of pages cerned. But I suspect that there are also important parallels to be sought in to 159 and revealed the author of the work they contained. He was none the West at the level of local culture. other than John, bishop of Ephesus in the sixth century A.D., and this was the third part of his Ecclesiastical History. The new text was presented to the world for the first time since the Middle Ages in an austere edition prepared by William Cureton, Canon of Westminster.1 John of Ephesus had long been known through other sources as a vig- orous proselytizer and an immodestly self-promoting chronicler of his con- versions of the heathen. But nonetheless the magnitude of the problems confronting this zealous missionary, as they appeared in his own account, surpassed all expectation. John went to convert the pagans of Asia Minor, in Lydia, Phrygia, and Caria, in 542, after repeated though frequently ignored temple closings and imperial interdicts.2 John's mission to Asia came well after Justinian's attempt to repress the philosophical schools at Athens, a move which had led to the unseemly and abortive journey of the Athenian Neoplatonists to Persia to find inspiration and support from the Sassanian king.3 The first commentator on the new text of John, a Dutch Protestant living in England and writing in German, simply refused to confront the degree of exaggeration in John's narrative, but of the presence of some exaggeration he 1. W. Cureton, ed., The Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John of Ephesus (Oxford, 1853). The preface to this work contains an account of the acquisition of the manuscript. 1. R. MacMullen, Paganism in the Roman Empire (New Haven, 1981), p. 134. 2. For John in Asia Minor, see the most recent edition of the surviving text of Hist. Eccles. 2. G. Fowden, JRS 78 (1988): 173. 3.3.36, GSCO vol. 106, Scrip. Syri 55:169 (Syriac). On imperial prohibitions of paganism, see the comprehensive survey by P. Chuvin, Chronicle of the Last Pagans (Harvard, 1990). 3. F. M. Clover and R. S. Humphreys, Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity (Madison, Wis., 1989), p. 10. 3. On Justinian's repression of education, see, for example, the judicious remarks of Averil Cameron, Procopius (Berkeley, 1985), p. 22. 2 Hellenism in Late Antiquity Paganism and Greek Culture 3 evidently had no doubt.4 John appeared to bear witness to a surprisingly be seen depicted on the coins of Magnesia as late as the third century A.D. vigorous paganism in Asia Minor over three centuries after Constantine had The Greek traveler Pausanias described the cult in the second century A.D.6 seen whatever it was that he saw (in the sky or in a dream) before the battle What is most remarkable is that the cult was known to the Neoplatonists at the Milvian Bridge. at the end of the fifth century and the beginning of the sixth A.D. A famous Writing of himself in the third person, John says that he began his mission pagan philosopher and doctor from Alexandria in Egypt visited this shrine, in the mountains of Tralles, an important city in the Maeander valley that is according to the testimony of Damascius.7 He then traveled from there to still today an important Turkish town under the name of Aydin. The whole the great city of Aphrodisias further to the east in the hills south of the Maeander valley had been a region of extensive Greek settlement and culture Maeander valley. This eminent Alexandrian, Asclepiodotus, is known to for over a millennium. It was also a region of many small villages and towns have resided for a time at Aphrodisias and to have participated in what was scattered throughout the mountains that enclosed the valley on the north obviously a thriving pagan society in the city. Asclepiodotus married the and south. Asia Minor had been famous for its urbanization in antiquity. As daughter of one of the most eminent members of the local council, a man many as five hundred cities were said to have flourished there. John reported who coincidentally happened to have the same name, Asclepiodotus, and that he discovered many thousands of pagans in the mountainous territory who is commemorated in three epigrams to have survived on the site.8 above Tralles, and in one particular town high up in the mountains he found In an important Syriac life of Severus of Antioch, the hagiographer a famous temple of idolaters that had jurisdiction over some fifteen hundred Zacharias marvelously calls up the religious atmosphere of late antique other dependent shrines in the adjacent territories. The old men whom John Aphrodisias when he reports the appeals of a new Christian convert to his met there told him that priestly representatives from the other shrines came pagan brothers there. "Do you remember," he said to them, "how many together to this mountainous place every year in order "to learn," in the sacrifices we offered together as pagans in Caria to the gods of the pagans words of John, and "to receive the law" as to how they should carry out their when we asked them—these alleged gods, while dissecting their livers and priestly duties.5 At this point the Syriac text uses the Greek word nomos, by examining them by magic—to teach us if we would succeed in conquering now well embedded in the Syriac language but nonetheless probably reflect- the Emperor Zeno? We received a multitude of oracles as well as promises at ing the conversations that John must have had with the local inhabitants in that time—how the Emperor Zeno could not resist, that the moment had their dialect of Greek. come when Christianity would collapse and disappear and when pagan Fifteen hundred pagan shrines, thousands of worshippers, and annual worship would take over again."9 convocations at a sacred place high in the mountains all suggest that the Elsewhere in Asia Minor in the sixth century there were temples to pagan cults of the region were hardly on the wane. Although the new testi- Artemis and to Iphigeneia at Comana, according to the testimony of the mony of John of Ephesus surfaced in the nineteenth century, it remains today historian Procopius.10 Nor was the worship of sacred trees confined to an invitation to reassess paganism in late antiquity. In the Maeander valley Magnesia. John of Ephesus himself reports that, in overturning the altars alone, still one of the most numinous landscapes in modern Turkey, there were clear signs that the old gods were alive and well. Near Magnesia a cult 6. L. Robert, "Le dendrophore de Magnésie," BCH 101 (1977): 77-88, reprinted in of Apollo that included a sacred cave and an ancient image of the god can be Documents d'Asie Mineure (Paris, 1987), pp. 35-46. traced from the days of Darius the Great in the sixth century B.C. to the early 7. Damascius Vit. Isid. p. 156 Zintzen, excerpt 117 from Photius. Cf. L. Robert, op. cit. (η. 6 above), on the identification of the toponym 'Απόλλωνος Αίιλαί. sixth century A.D., over a thousand years later. The cult included some 8. L. Robert, "Deux Épigrammes d'Aphrodisias de Carie et Asklépiodotos," Hellenica 4 sacred gardeners, who planted trees in honor of Apollo and then, from time (1948): 115-26 with Hellenica 13 (1965): 170-71. See also C. Roueché, Aphrodisias in Late to time, in a fit of wild enthusiasm, would tear them out by the roots and Antiquity (London, 1989), pp. 85-93. Kenan Erim, director of the excavations at Aphrodisias, generously informs me that a cache of late Alexandrian bronze coins has been discovered behind carry them around in frenzy. These gardeners are already mentioned by the theater. Furthermore, near the Sebasteion he has uncovered a building that is clearly a late Darius in a well-known inscription from the sixth century B.c., and they can antique philosophical school (with busts of its teachers and tondo portraits of the great figures of the past—Pythagoras, Apollonius [of Tyana presumably], Socrates, Pindar). This important 4. J. P. N. Land, Johannes, Bischof von Ephesos: Der erste syrische Kirchenhistoriker archaeological evidence will be published by R. R. R. Smith. (Leyden, 1856), p. 60: "In wie weit diese Angabe übertrieben, lassen wir dahingestellt sein." 9. Zacharias Vi'i. Severi, in Kugener, Patrologia Orientalis 2.1 (1904), pp. 40-41. 5. John Eph., loc. cit. (η. 2 above). 10. Procopius Wars 1.17.11-12. 4 Hellenism in Late Antiquity Paganism and Greek Culture 5 that had been defiled by the blood of sacrifices offered to pagan divinities, he size to the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. It is heavy going in Greek (or in brought down numerous trees that the local people worshipped. Further to translation, for that matter), composed as it is in a dense and allusive style the south in Lycia a cypress was thought to contain the spirit of an idol, and with many references to obscure myths and gods. It is hardly surprising that on the southern coast of Turkey there was another famous cult of Artemis, it has not received the attention it deserves for our understanding of the Artemis Eleuthera.11 John of Ephesus was moving in a world of flourishing paganism of late antiquity. The great new mosaics from New Paphos give us, cults of great antiquity that represented at one and the same time local by contrast, a Dionysus that is much more immediate. Nonnos's poem is traditions, local cult objects, such as trees or idols, and a mythology that was part of a far greater historical fabric. (PLATES 1-4.) Greek mediated by a language that was also Greek (if not of the purest). The In Egypt, the homeland of Nonnos, some of the most important texts indigenous languages, such as Phrygian, had long gone, but the indigenous from the Egyptian religious tradition, texts which were associated with the cults remained, and they remained in Greek vestments.12 revelations of Hermes Trismegistos, Thrice-Greatest Hermes—texts which The religious world to which John of Ephesus gives us such sudden and were alleged to be of immemorial antiquity in the region—circulated widely startling access was no different in other parts of what had been the eastern in Greek translation. The name of the Greek god Hermes was adapted to his empire of Rome and was now the new empire of Byzantium, itself the new Egyptian counterpart. The Hermetic doctrines came to acquire wide cur- Rome. In southern Syria a local god by the name of Theandrites bore in his rency in pagan circles both inside and outside Egypt. But in a brilliant study own name a theological problem that the Christians thought they had cre- of the Egyptian Hermes, Garth Fowden has rightly emphasized that, al- ated themselves. Theandrites means quite simply "The God-Man." His cult though the Egyptian milieu of the Hermetic writings had been long and can be traced back for centuries in the fertile plain of the Hawrân, and his irreversibly Hellenized in its language and thought patterns, it had never devotees can be found as far afield as North Africa, where Arab soldiers kept been turned into a Greek milieu.16 Greek was the language and culture of alive the cults of their homeland.13 But Theandrites was not only a local god, transmission and communication. It served, in other words, as a vehicle. What happened in Egypt was not essentially different from the role of Greek he was international too. The great Neoplatonist teacher Proclus is said to have worshipped him in Athens.14 and Greek mythology in giving expression to the cults of trees and caves in Asia Minor or to the cults of a god-man in southern Syria. If the twentieth century has brought us no literary text quite so arresting in its revelation of late antique paganism as that of John of Ephesus in the The significance of Greek culture in local paganism throughout the coun- nineteenth century, we can nonetheless evoke an equally astonishing discov- tries of the eastern Mediterranean has never been easy to make out. It has ery from the visual arts. Just six years ago the Polish excavators at the town often been observed that Egyptian religion remained steadfastly Egyptian of New Paphos on the island of Cyprus unearthed a group of mosaics that despite the Hellenic veneer (as it seemed), but it was not only in Egypt that both illuminate and symbolize the powerful role of Dionysus in the Greek local cults remained essentially what they were. The Arabian god at Petra, world of late antiquity.15 Hitherto the most lavish proof of the potency of Syrian Bel, and the tree cults of Asia Minor were no more Hellenized than this great god of frenzy and intoxication had been the enormous epic poem the cults of Egypt. Indeed the tenacity of paganism in Asia Minor, as John of from the fifth century A.D. by Nonnos of Panopolis in Egypt. This work, Ephesus saw it, has sometimes been ascribed to the deterioration of the which survives in its entirety, runs to forty-eight books and is thus equal in Greek language into impenetrable dialects that preserved the independence of their speakers from the central Christian administration.17 But interpreta- tions along these lines are both too simple and misconceived. 11. Cf. the discussions in F. R. Trombley, "Paganism in the Greek World at the End of Antiquity," Harv. Theol. Rev. 78 (1985): 334, and L. Robert, "Villes et Monnaies de Lycie," Part of the problem lies in the traditional emphasis in writings from the Hellenica 10 (1955): 197-99. Renaissance to the present on the role of Greek language and philosophy in 12. Trombley, op. cit. (n. 11 above), p. 336. early Christianity. Intimations of Neoplatonism in the fathers and vestiges of 13. Damascius Vit. Isid. p. 272 Zintzen, excerpt 198 from Photius. Cf. L. Robert, REG 49 (1936): 1-6 (Volubilis), reprinted in Opera Minora Selecta 2.939-44. See also G. W. Bower- pagan rituals in Christian worship, such as the cult of saints as an evolution sock, "An Arabian Trinity," Harv. Theol. Rev. 79 (1986): 21. 14. Marinus Vit. Prodi 19.480, p. 76 Masullo. 15. W. A. Daszewski, Dionysos der Erlöser, Trierer Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, vol. 2 16. G. Fowden, The Egyptian Hermes (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 43-44. (Mainz, 1985). 17. Cf. Trombley, op. cit. (η. 11 above), p. 336. 6 Hellenism in Late Antiquity Paganism and Greek Culture 7 of the cults of heroes and emperors, have been scrupulously disengaged and turned out to be a deception. Cities that seemed to show all the external illuminated. But paganism itself, seen on its own terms not so much as a trappings of Greek urbanism have been shown to contain within them indig- rival of Christianity but rather as a contemporary alternative expression of enous forms of urbanization that come into view long before any conquests piety, remains relatively obscure. Paganism as a rival to Christianity was at the hands of Arabs or Turks.20 essentially a Christian perception. For the pagans, coexistence with another The problem lies in the very notion of Hellenization. It is a useless barom- cult, however popular it might be, was always a real possibility. The priests eter for assessing Greek culture. There is not even a word for it in classical or at the pagan shrines of Asia Minor or Syria or Egypt hardly saw themselves Byzantine Greek. Hellenism was a language and culture in which peoples of in contention with the pope, and few of them even had the relatively modest the most diverse kind could participate. That is exactly what makes it so ambitions of a Symmachus in trying to place a sacred emblem in a public remarkable. To say that cities such as Tralles or Gerasa were only super- place.18 ficially Hellenized is not helpful, if this is supposed to mean that those cities retained considerable local character; and it is hard to think of what else it In the three centuries from the conversion of Constantine to the Islamic could mean. Hellenism, which is a genuine Greek word for Greek culture conquest only the Emperor Julian ever seriously conceived of paganism in opposition to Christianity. And the reason for this is obvious, although it is (Hellênismos), represented language, thought, mythology, and images that rarely stated: Julian was raised as a Christian. He turned to paganism with constituted an extraordinarily flexible medium of both cultural and religious the zeal of a convert, and his view of paganism was conditioned by his expression. It was a medium not necessarily antithetical to local or indige- Christian upbringing. He was the sort of pagan that Christians conjured up. nous traditions. On the contrary, it provided a new and more eloquent way He, and he alone of all the eminent pagans of late antiquity, wanted to turn of giving voice to them. paganism into the very thing that the Christians most feared and fought. It is The relation of Greek culture or Hellenism to paganism in late antiquity highly unlikely that he would ever have nourished such a desire had he been can be understood perhaps more clearly if we look at some examples of a pagan from birth. what was happening before the radiance of state-supported Christianity The reason for these sharply differing conceptions of paganism on the endangers the clarity of our vision. It has sometimes been said that Zenobia, part of Christians and the pagans themselves is that paganism was not (and the queen of Palmyra in the third century A.D., presided over a city and, for a never was) a church. Polytheism is by definition tolerant and accommodat- while, an empire, that was not really Hellenic. This view found support in ing. Although some cults might be officially adopted by a state, as at Rome, the ultimate struggle of Zenobia's career, in which she fought against a local cults throughout the provinces went their own ways on their own Roman emperor who appeared to stand for the traditional values of the terms. In the territories where Greek was known to a greater or lesser extent Graeco-Roman world. Palmyra itself seemed not to be a truly Greek city from the time of Alexander the Great, if not before, local deities became because it lacked a theater, although it did have an agora and a bouleutêrion more comprehensible and more widely known through an assimilation with for the council; above all, it lacked athletic, musical, and poetic competi- Greek deities. But there was never a pagan church. Only Julian ever had the tions. And yet, as anyone who studies the inscriptions of the city can readily mad idea of trying to establish one. ascertain, Hellenism lay at the very center of Zenobia's cultural world.21 Palmyra was a bilingual city, and its inscriptions are not only balanced The persistence of all these local traditions has suggested that there was between Palmyrene Aramaic and Greek: it is clear that Greek influenced no more than a superficial Hellenization in much of Asia Minor, the Near Palmyrene in its diction rather more than Palmyrene Greek. The columns, East, and Egypt. A truer or at least less superficial kind of Hellenization was the architecture, the reliefs, and the funerary portraits that abound in the sought in those great cities that displayed patterns of Greek town-planning physical remains of Palmyra show throughout a strong Hellenic influence. with agoras and theaters, and especially Greek institutions such as agonistic competitions of athletes, musicians, and poets.19 But even this criterion has Zenobia herself gathered around her in the sumptuous buildings of her oasis city one of the most luminous collections of Greek intellectuals ever to 18. On Symmachus and the Altar of Victory, see the commemorative essays in F. Paschoud, ed., Colloque genevois sur Symmaque à l'occasion du mille six centième anniversaire du conflit 20. H. Kennedy, "From Polis to Madina: Urban Change in Late Antique and Early Islamic de l'autel de la Victoire (Paris, 1986). Syria," Past and Present 106-9 (1985): 3-27. 19. Cf. L. Robert, "Discours d'ouverture," Πρακτικά, Acta of the Epigraphical Congress 21. Cf. G. W. Bowersock, "The Hellenism of Zenobia," in Greek Connections, ed. J. T. A. at Athens in October 1982 (Athens, 1984), pp. 35￿45. Koumoulides (Notre Dame, 1987), pp. 19-27. 8 Hellenism in Late Antiquity Paganism and Greek Culture 9 adorn an ancient salon. Longinus (possibly the author of the superb literary face to a god formerly worshipped as an idol, but its face was a local face. In treatise On the Sublime), the orator Callinicus, and the Christian Paul from one remarkable coin the god as a man can be seen confronting the god as an Samosata bear witness to genuinely Hellenic tastes. What is perhaps most idol.25 revealing about Zenobia and her culture is the way it was perceived by the These coins were issued in the capital city of the province, Bostra, now in Graeco-Roman world and by the Arab world, to which she obviously be- southern Syria. This is a city that had a theater and the Greek institution of longed. From the Graeco-Roman side she was another in the long line of agonistic games. But the games were named in honor of the local deity, usurpers, trying to win power from the established authority. The Emperor Dusares, while at the same time joining many other cities of the East in Aurelian fought her as a rival, not as a barbarian, and after her defeat she commemorating Augustus's victory at the Battle of Actium. Hence the name was comfortably set up in the suburbs outside Rome and honored for the Actia Dusaria.26 The double name that is both Hellenic and Semitic is an rest of her days. More revealing still is the Arab tradition as we know it institutional and verbal analogue to the twofold representation of the god on through Arabic texts of the Middle Ages.22 It is clear that Zenobia was not the coins of the city. Are we to say that Bostra is any more Greek or Hellenic seen as a traitor to her people or as someone who had turned Greek. Her than Palmyra simply because these games were held there, when they were struggle was presented as a kind of civil war among the Arab tribes of the not at Palmyra? The games do not by any means represent a deepened or region—a civil war in which Aurelian took one side rather than the other. truer Hellenism. What they do indicate is status, status both within the That Zenobia could be a Roman to the Romans and an Arab to the Arabs province and within the empire itself. It is no accident that they were be- can only be explained by the miraculous refracting power of Hellenism. stowed upon the city by Philip, the first Arab to sit upon the throne of the Further south, in the province of Arabia, we can see in visual terms the Caesars. adaptation of Hellenism to local culture through a remarkable sequence of These examples from the third century, on the eve of the period we know Arabian coins that runs from the time of the Nabataean kings, who ruled the as late antiquity, demonstrate clearly without any distraction from Chris- region before the Romans, down to the middle of the third century A.D. tianity what Greek culture meant in the pagan life of the eastern Mediterra- (PLATES 5-8.) The chief god of the Nabataeans, Dusares, had tradition- nean. In language, myth, and image it provided the means for a more ally been worshipped in aniconic form, represented in carvings and in free- articulate and a more universally comprehensible expression of local tradi- standing idols.23 But Greek religion was, of course, anthropomorphic. The tions. This became the precious mission and character of Hellenism in the collision of Hellenism and the Nabataeans in Arabia allowed the visual Christian empire of late antiquity. It is for this reason that the word Helle- language of the Greeks to give new expression to the native Nabataean nism (Hellênismos) takes on a new meaning in late antiquity, a meaning that traditions without in any way annihilating them. In some coins the original proclaims in the most eloquent way possible the relation between paganism aniconic form of the great god Dusares can be seen standing flanked by two and Greek culture. For Hellenism comes to mean "paganism" itself. The other nonrepresentational idols—his colleagues in a divine trinity.24 This dictionaries and lexica have long recognized that Hellênismos in later Greek ancient aniconic form of the god appears on coins from the second and third sometimes means paganism and sometimes Greek culture (or Hellenism as centuries A.D., and yet at the same time in the same region the god is repre- we use the word), and that Hellenes are sometimes "pagans" and sometimes sented in Greek terms as a man. The anthropomorphism may be Greek, but simply "Greeks." Similarly the adjective Hellênikos sometimes means "pa- the man most certainly is not. It is a Nabataean face that we see with a Nabataean coiffure. The face is the traditional image of Nabataean kings, as 25. Anthropomorphic Dusares: A. Kindler, The Coinage of Bostra (Warminster, 1983), cat. the coins show. It would have been comprehensible and inspiring in that no. 18; SNG, ANS, 6, no. 1206. Nabataean royal faces: SNG, ANS, 6, no. 1440. Human form and idol: M. Rosenberger, The Coinage of Eastern Palestine (Jerusalem, 1978), Characmoba form to the people of Arabia. In other words, Hellenism may have given the no. 2; A. Spijkerman, The Coins of the Decapolis and Provincia Arabia (Jerusalem, 1978), pp. 110-11, no. 5; BMC Cat. Arabia, p. 27, no. 3; Glendinning auction catalog of March 10, 22. M. Piotrovskii, "Arabskaya Versiya Istorii Tsaritsy Zenobii (Az-Zabby)," Palestinskii 1965, no. 180 with pi. 6, no. 180, from which the photograph on pi. 8 in the present book was Sbornik 21 (1970): 170-83. made. 23. G. W. Bowersock, "The Cult and Representation of Dusares in Roman Arabia," in 26. G. W. Bowersock, Roman Arabia (Harvard, 1983), p. 122 with n. 50, and "Greek Petra Symposium on the Caravan Cities (Amman, forthcoming). Culture at Petra and Bostra in the Third Century A.D.," Proc. of Delphi Symposium on Helle- 24. E.g., SNG, ANS, 6, nos. 1215 and 1253. nism in the Near East, European Cultural Center of Delphi, forthcoming.