ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES Tolerance and Cultural Diversity Discourses and Practices in Sweden Hans Ingvar Roth,Fredrik Hertzberg, Ulf Mörkenstam and Andreas Gottardis, Stockholm University 2013/24 5. New Knowledge Country Synthesis Reports EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, FLORENCE ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES Tolerance and Cultural Diversity Discourses and Practices in Sweden HANS INGVAR ROTH, FREDRIK HERZBERG, ULF MÖRKENSTAM, ANDREAS GOTTARDIS STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY Work Package 5- New Knowledge on Tolerance and Cultural Diversity D5.1 Country Synthesis Report on Tolerance and Cultural diversity - Concepts and Practices © 2013 Hans Ingvar Roth, Fredrik Hertzberg, Ulf Mörkenstam and Andreas Gottardis This text may be downloaded only for personal research purposes. Additional reproduction for other purposes, whether in hard copies or electronically, requires the consent of the author(s), editor(s). If cited or quoted, reference should be made to the full name of the author(s), editor(s), the title, the research project, the year and the publisher. Published by the European University Institute Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies Via dei Roccettini 9 50014 San Domenico di Fiesole - Italy ACCEPT PLURALISM Research Project, Tolerance, Pluralism and Social Cohesion: Responding to the Challenges of the 21st Century in Europe European Commission, DG Research Seventh Framework Programme Social Sciences and Humanities grant agreement no. 243837 www.accept-pluralism.eu www.eui.eu/RSCAS/ Available from the EUI institutional repository CADMUS cadmus.eui.eu 2 Tolerance, Pluralism and Social Cohesion: Responding to the Challenges of the 21st Century in Europe (ACCEPT PLURALISM) ACCEPT PLURALISM is a Research Project, funded by the European Commission under the Seventh Framework Program. The project investigates whether European societies have become more or less tolerant during the past 20 years. In particular, the project aims to clarify: (a) how is tolerance defined conceptually, (b) how it is codified in norms, institutional arrangements, public policies and social practices, (c) how tolerance can be measured (whose tolerance, who is tolerated, and what if degrees of tolerance vary with reference to different minority groups). The ACCEPT PLURALISM consortium conducts original empirical research on key issues in school life and in politics that thematise different understandings and practices of tolerance. Bringing together empirical and theoretical findings, ACCEPT PLURALISM generates a State of the Art Report on Tolerance and Cultural Diversity in Europe, a Handbook on Ideas of Tolerance and Cultural Diversity in Europe, a Tolerance Indicators’ Toolkit where qualitative and quantitative indicators may be used to score each country’s performance on tolerating cultural diversity, and several academic publications (books, journal articles) on Tolerance, Pluralism and Cultural Diversity in Europe. The ACCEPT PLULARISM consortium is formed by 18 partner institutions covering 15 EU countries. The project is hosted by the Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies and co-ordinated by Prof. Anna Triandafyllidou. The EUI, the RSCAS and the European Commission are not responsible for the opinion expressed by the author(s). Fredrik Hertzberg is senior lecturer at the Department of Education at Stockholm University. He has a PhD in Ethnology from Stockholm University. He was preciously active as researcher at the National institute of Working Life in Stockholm. His research interests include social identities and social categorizations, the politics of multiculturalism in education, school-to work transition and processes of ethnical and racial exclusion. Ulf Mörkenstam is senior lecturer at the Department of Political Science, Stockholm University. His main fields of research are policy analysis, minority rights and political theory. He currently works on two different projects (2010-2013) on indigenous rights and political representation: Indigenous peoples’ right to self-determination: The Institutional Design and Policy Process of the Swedish Sami Parliament (funded by the Swedish Riksbankens Jubileumsfond), and Globalisation and New Political Rights. The Challenges of the Rights to Inclusion, Self-Determination and Secession (funded by the Swedish Research Council). Andreas Gottardis is a PhD student at the Department of Political Science, Stockholm University, writing a dissertation on Jürgen Habermas and the Frankfurt school, with the preliminary title Dialectics of Emancipation. He has worked as Research Assistant in the ACCEPT PLURALISM Project. Hans Ingvar Roth is professor of education at Stockholm University. He has written extensively on affirmative action, human rights, minority rights and multicultural education. He has also worked as professor in human rights studies at Lund University, senior advisor at the Swedish Ministry of Justice, as Human Rights Officer for OSCE in Bosnia and as secretary in the Swedish parliamentary committee on discrimination laws Contact details: Prof. Hans Ingvar Roth, Stockholm University E-mail: [email protected] 3 For more information on the Socio Economic Sciences and Humanities Programme in FP7 see: http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/index_en.htm http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/cooperation/socio- economic_en.html 4 Table of Contents Executive Summary...................................................................................................................................... 6 Key words ................................................................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: TOLERATION IN SWEDEN ............................................................. 14 1.1. National identity and state formation .............................................................................................. 17 1.2. Main cultural challenges .................................................................................................................. 20 1.3. The definition of tolerance in Sweden ............................................................................................. 32 1.4. Concluding remarks ......................................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 2: (IN)TOLERANCE AND RECOGNITION OF DIFFERENCE IN SWEDISH SCHOOLS. TH CASE OF ISLAMIC DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS AND PRACTICES OF VEILING ............ 40 2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 40 2.2. Case Study 1: Islamic independent denominational schools ........................................................... 48 2.3. Case Study 2: Burqa and Niqab in the everyday life of schools...................................................... 59 2.4. Concluding remarks ......................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER 3: THE SWEDISH SÁMI PARLIAMENT: A CHALLENGED RECOGNITION? .............. 76 3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 76 3.2. Methodology.................................................................................................................................... 82 3.3. The Sami Parliament in the Swedish Press ..................................................................................... 83 CHAPTER 4: CONCLUDING REMARKS .............................................................................................. 96 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................... 99 5 Executive Summary In this comprehensive report we draw together the results of three studies of Swedish conceptions of acceptance, tolerance and intolerance. Chapter 1 addresses the question of ethnic, cultural and religious diversity in Sweden and portrays the ways in which the aforementioned types of diversity have been dealt with so far in this Northern European country. In doing so, the report primarily delineates the main constitutive elements of Swedish national identity (i.e. “who is considered to be Swedish”) as well as the some of the most important factors and historical conditions that have shaped the modern Swedish state. By explaining the formation of the modern Swedish state as well as the most common features of Swedish national identity, we also provide a basis for an understanding of the demarcations and limitations of Swedish citizenship. In the introductory part of the paper, we describe some key features of Sweden, migration to Sweden, Swedish official policy on recognition and tolerance, and some of the challenges of cultural diversity that Sweden has faced during recent years. In its second part, the paper focuses on the formation of the Swedish state and the development of a modern (or, rather, late-modern) Swedish national identity, and its constituents. Although the developments during modernity and late modernity are emphasized, some room is left for earlier historical course of events. The Swedish state was formed rather early, in the 11th century, but remained a rather loosely organised formation until the 16th century, when the state was consolidated. During the wars in the 17th century, a highly centralized state was developed, showing a relatively early example of a rigorously organized state power. Since then, centralization has been one of the defining features in the execution of official power, increasingly shaping the relation between the state r and the citizens . Later on, this specific tradition of centralization has also shaped the ways in which multicultural policies have been articulated and – above all - executed in Sweden. In Sweden, the ideological heritage from romantic, idealistic nationalism, which flourished during the 19th century, has – as in most other European countries – shaped the prevalent different conceptions of a national identity. Still, some local particularities may also be noted. From the establishment of the centralized Swedish state and until the 19th century a ”nationalism” with a sharp focus upon religion dominated the public discourse, a nationalism which allowed for a rather generous form of cultural diversity as long as the people expressed their belonging to the Lutheran church. Later on, the discourse on national identity was under heavy influence from racist and” scientific” –( in the latter case), predominantly medical - discourses. Thus, during the end of 19th and until the middle of the 20th century a racial and Social Darwinist form of nationalism dominated the public discourse and the state policies. During the decades following the end of the Second World War, a Swedish national identity was developed, which was articulated in tandem with the ideological underpinnings of the Scandinavian welfare state model – and the relative success this model had shown in comparison to several other European countries. Swedes developed an understanding of themselves as a progressive and a modern group of citizens. According to their political inclination, people emphasized either economic and technological improvement and engineering skills as key features of the Swedish society, and/or the success of the welfare state and the progressive, democratic and humanistic values that accompanied that political project. Following certain demographical changes (above all, an increased immigration), the decline of the Scandinavian model of the welfare state, and the relative success of neoliberal political models, the discursive prerequisites for the articulation of a national identity has changed. It could be said that present-day constituents of the Swedish identity on the one hand are shaped in line with the above-mentioned propensity to regard Swedishness as progressive, modern and democratic, and on the other directly worked out in relation to - and dissociation from - the migrant population and non-European ethnic groups. In the third section of the paper, which is named “Main cultural challenges”, we outline the above mentioned change of prerequisites for the articulation of a Swedish identity. First, we depict the history of migration to Sweden since the Second World War, and then we provide a short survey of 6 the minority groups which are living in Sweden. We also provide a short description of some ethnic or religious minority groups, which have encountered an explicit and even extensive opposition to their claims for recognition or tolerance of their group-specific practices. In line with the opposition that their claims have met, it could be argued that they exemplify what is perceived as a cultural challenge. The modern era of immigration to Sweden can roughly be divided into four stages, each stage representing different types of immigrants and immigration: 1) refugees from neighboring countries, 2) labor immigration from Finland and southern Europe, 3) family reunification and refugees from developing countries, and 4) asylum seekers from southeastern and Eastern Europe, and the Middle east, and the free movement of EU citizens within the European Union. With the reception of migrations, Sweden’s demographical structure has changed in a manifest way, and over 10 % of the population is born outside Sweden or has parents who are born outside Sweden. Still, with the exception of Finns, most migrant groups have been relatively small in number throughout history. The diversity of national minorities and the indigenous population the Sámis has been recognized through Sweden´s decision to ratify the Council of Europe´s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Still, this special recognition of the national minorities constitutes a break with earlier political traditions. Sweden’s official multicultural policy earlier had a more integrated or uniform stance towards national minorities and immigrant communities. Since the middle of the 1970s has Sweden officially adopted multiculturalism as a guiding policy with respect to immigrants and national minorities (even though the official rhetoric of multiculturalism has been downgraded in later years). The needs and the interests the national minorities were more recognized in the light of the political attention directed towards immigrants. The basis for the policy was summarized through the concept “equality, freedom of choice, and cooperation”. In the Swedish Instrument of Government it is also emphasized that various groups defined through language, ethnicity and religion should be supported in order to maintain their cultural heritage and identities. Following recently conducted research; we claim that four minority groups in Sweden face particular opposition in their claims for tolerance and/or respect: Saami, Roma, Muslims and Sub-Saharan Africans. In the fourth section of the report, it is outlined how questions of tolerance, acceptance and recognition has been articulated and formulated in migration- and minority policy during the last decades, with a specific emphasis upon the ten previous years. The multicultural policy that was officially adopted in 1975 was characterized by an endeavor for recognition of minority rights, but it could be defined as an extrapolation of the Swedish welfare model; the goals of equality was enlarged with the goal of “freedom of choice”, by assuring the members of ethnic and linguistic minorities a genuine choice between retaining and developing their cultural identity and assuming a Swedish cultural identity. Still, the policy was also influenced by a liberal, individualistic political philosophy, with its focus on individuals and individual rights and skepticism towards group-orientated rights, such as collective self-determination, land-rights and cultural autonomy. And - less than a decade after its implementation, an official discourse was articulated which stressed the limits of multiculturalism. The multicultural policy was circumscribed by a perceived need to clarify what was inherently Swedish culture, and a need to clarify which norms and values that are obligatory and unconditional in the Swedish society - and thus- mandatory for migrants to conform to. Thus, we argue that a far- reaching program of tolerance and recognition was never fully implemented in Sweden in spite of the wide spread rhetoric of diversity and multiculturalism. A distinctive shift in Swedish multiculturalism policy took place in the mid-1990’s. The issue of inclusion of migrants into society was by and large transformed to a matter of inclusion of migrants into the labour market, and integrations policy consisted mainly of measures promoting employability – although the legal rights of the minorities were left unchanged. From the vantage point of labour market conditions, the new policy puts its emphasis on the responsibilities and rights of the individual - not his or her affiliations. From now on, the political rhetoric in Sweden´s integration and minority politics focused more on “same rights and responsibilities” and “same possibilities”. Hence, the ideal of recognition was downgraded and the emphasis was more placed upon notions such as same formal rights and responsibilities and non-discrimination – especially in the labour market. 7 In summary, it must be noted that a significant gulf between theory and practice haunts the political philosophy of multiculturalism – in Sweden as well as elsewhere. Partly counter to the relativist and pluralist core of the multiculturalism and the diversity oratory, practitioners of the welfare state repeatedly express a plea for conformity to perceived Swedish norms and standards. In official bodies we find an attitude of non-tolerance vis-à-vis those norms and customs of minority groups that are perceived to be not in tune with the basic norms of the majority culture. The aim of the chapter 2 is to describe and analyze the embodiment of acceptance and recognition in discourses and practices which address cultural diversity in the Swedish educational system. In order to fulfill this general aim, we study how different categories of practitioners in the Swedish school system, such as teachers, headmasters and union representatives, and other stakeholders, such as civil servants, and representatives of political parties and the civil society, discuss and relate to the claims of recognition put forth by Muslim practitioners and/or policy measures designed to reach the fulfillment of those claims. Two cases are studied: the establishment of Muslim independent schools and the claims to dress veiled in public schools, out forth by Muslim youth. The cases are selected with consideration to a number of circumstances. First, the faith and belief practices of Muslim migrants have been debated on a large scale in Swedish media during the last decade, as in many other West European and North American countries. It is quite common that these practices has been put under scrutiny, and subjected to extensive critique. The attention paid to Muslim belief practices and institutions has also reached Muslim denominational schools and the practice of Burqa and Niqab. Even though the actual cases of controversies in schools have been few concerning the burqa and the niqab, they present challenges to the limits of tolerance that are interesting from the perspective of so-called majority norms in the Swedish society. The establishment of denominational schools during the last two decades, whether Islamic or not, has also received a lot of attention, in mainstream media as well as in debates on education policy. For instance, a number of political parties have voiced demands to keep down the number of Islamic denominational schools. Second, Muslim migrants has, according to a number of studies, been subjected to direct and indirect discrimination. Whether this discrimination primarily is religious to its nature, or ethnic, and hence targeting their ethnic identity, is not always concluded, but the extensive negative attention mentioned above suggests that the scope of religiously motivated discrimination is either predominant or on the rise. The enactment of Muslim belief practices is not infrequently obstructed. For example, the construction of Mosques does seldom take place in silence; frequent and high-pitched voices of rejection and disapproval are common, and when the buildings once are completed, the congregations receive numerous threats and insults. The opposition is evident, and two mosques have been burned down. Moreover, women wearing burqa or niqab report being harassed in public. Apart from the lack of recognition and acceptance in religious matters, the prevalence of discriminatory mechanisms might also obstruct the access to welfare services and the entry to the labour market. This report consists of two cases studies, which relies solely on qualitative data. The main part of the empirical material consists of interviews with 13 persons – three teachers, three headmasters, two union representatives, two civil servants, one jurist, one imam and one representative of a political party. The interviews are used as a source for both cases. As additions to interviews, we have collected newspaper articles, memos from public authorities, bills introduced to the parliament, debates on commentary fields in web-edition of newspapers, et cetera. Being a minor study, it is necessary to make some reservations concerning the reliability of our material. Thus, it is difficult to determine whether or not it is possible to make generalizations from our material, thus asserting that the viewpoints found in our material are overlapping with or similar to the attitudes of other teachers, headmasters et cetera. In sum, a number of disadvantages with the establishment of Islamic denominational schools are expressed. They are allegedly divisive, both culturally and socially, and the quality of their instructions is supposed to be inadequate, in relation to the standards explicated in the national curriculum and syllabi. If the attitudes found in this study is spread all over Sweden, it could reasonable be said that 8