Sociology and the Mistrust of Thought: Hannah Arendt’s Encounterwith Karl Mannheimand the Sociology of Knowledge 1 Abstract Karl Mannheim’s Ideology and Utopiaranks among the few truly seminal texts of sociology. The charter document of the sociologyof knowledge, the book was recognized from the beginning as a pioneering and provocative work. Among its early critics was a young, obscure philosopher who later emerged to become one of America’s most controversial public intellectuals: Hannah Arendt. This article examines the encounter between Arendt and Mannheim and describes the stakes of what it symbolized in the confrontation between sociology and philosophy. Two themes are especially salient. The first centers on Arendt’s objections to the Marxistcumsociological stratagem of “unmasking.” The second demonstrates that while Arendt detested sociology, she was drawn, despite herself to construct her own political sociology of knowledge – namely, of Jewish assimilation. That suggests something philosophers and political theorists are frequently loathto admit: that a covert sociology– latent, unacknowledged, inchoate –undergirds much oftheir writing on society. INTRODUCTION “Every age has its own originality,” Hannah Arendt (1930).2 “Can we master the global tensions [that beset us] or must we suffer shipwreck upon our own history?” Karl Mannheim (1932). 3 This article examines Hannah Arendt’s appraisalofIdeology and Utopia (1929), Karl Mannheim’s foundational argument for the sociology of knowledge. 4 Written before she developed her own political theory, Arendt’s review is moderate and discriminating, bereft of the acidic contempt for sociologythat would come later. If she had perished in Auschwitz or 1 I am grateful to David Kettler and Volker Meja for their helpful remarks on an earlier draft of this paper. 2 Arendt ([1930] 1994, p. 35) = Arendt ([1930] 1982, pp. pp. 521522), which is the German version I cite below. The article first appeared as “Philosophie und Soziologie: Anlässlich Karl Mannheim, Ideologie und Utopie,”Die Gesellschaft, 7, 1 (1930), pp. 163176 3 Mannheim ([19301932] 2001, p. 77). 4 Mannheim ([1929] 1936) = Mannheim (1929a). 1 Treblinka, we would today read this essayas little more than a period piece, a smallcontribution to a debate that ephemerallycaught scholarly attention in the twilight years of the Weimar Republic. But Arendt was not murdered in a Nazi camp. She fled Germanyin 1933 to become one of America’s most celebrated and controversialpublic intellectuals until her death in 1975. And throughout her postwar career Arendt repeatedly attackedthe social sciences, those “abominable” disciplines that were, she said, congenitallydisabled fromgrasping the terrible novelty of totalitarian regimes. Seen from that elongated perspective, her youthful collision withthe sociologyof knowledge assumes greater significance. First,it comprised her onlyexplicit encounter with a major sociological work. Ifshe found sociology “disturbing” at this point in her career, she was at least still willing to engage with its exponents, afact confirmed by her attendance of the Frankfurt interdisciplinary seminar, conducted under Mannheim’s auspices, on “Social History and History of Ideas: Early Liberalism in Germany.”5 Nothing in her subsequentlypublished oeuvre or literary remains writtenafter 1933 suggests that Arendt tooka serious interest in Mannheim again. The Mannheim she knew and occasionallyrecalled was the prodigy of Weimar, not the melancholy exile in England who became a champion of rationalism and planning. Second, Arendt’s review of Mannheimis significant in prefiguring her aversion to the Marxistsociological stratagem of “unmasking” a rhetorical mode of exposure she later condemned as naïve, sinister and cruel and her dislike ofwhat she called “functionalism”. As a 5 More precisely, the “Working Group on Social History and History of Ideas” was a joint academic venture led by Mannheim together with, Adolf Löwe, Ludwig Bergsträsser and Ulrich Noack; respectively, this fielded a sociologist, an economist, a political scientist and a historian. The workshop spanned the academic years 193133. Among the student attendees were Arendt, her then husband Günther Stern, Hans Weil, Norbert Elias (actually, Mannheim’s paid assistant, working on his Habilitation), and Hans Gerth. Gerth went so far as to claim that the historical passages in theOrigins of Totalitarianism were stimulated by this workshop, but to what extent that is true is hard to judge and, to this author, is doubtful. For this information, see the comments by Ulrich Herrmann to his edition of Gerth (1976, pp. 9 and 81). 2 mature political theorist, writing in America, she lacerated both stances. Here we see the first inklings ofthat opposition. 6 I begin by sketching the background to Arendt’s encounter with Mannheim, proceed to outline her criticalreview ofIdeology and Utopia, and then examine Mannheim and Arendt’s contrastive analyses of intellectuals. I contend that her study of the pathologies of Jewish assimilation, begun in the year that she composed the review of Mannheim, offers a distinctive, if unacknowledged, politicalsociology of knowledge. Having renounced sociology, she ended up doing it by default. We might be tempted to see that as a personalirony. In fact it cuts to a deeper issue. Once philosophers attribute powers to social phenomena, and once they seek to explain mental, emotional, political and other factors in terms of these powers, theyare invariably implicated insociological practice, whether they realize it or not. BEFORE THE CATACLYSM: THE BACKGROUND TO ARENDT’S ENCOUNTER WITH MANNHEIM The occasion was the publication in 1929 of Karl Mannheim’s Ideology and Utopia, which Arendt reviewed a year later for Die Gesellschaft. The flagship theoreticaljournalof the German Social Democratic Party, founded by Rudolf Hilferding, Die Gesellschaft was principally run after 1928 byAlbert Salomon. 7 That the editors commissioned three other critical pieces on Ideology and Utopia, penned by Paul Tillich, Herbert Marcuse and Hans Speier, 8 indicates the fanfare with which Mannheim’s work was greeted. And it was not onlyleftists who took note. Ever since his electrifying contribution to the Sixth Congress of German Sociologists in 1928 – 6 Arendt’s post 1945 critique of sociology is discussed in Baehr 2002a. 7 In 1928, Hilferding becameGerman Minister of Finance. 8 They are collected and translated in Meja and Stehr (1990). 3 the lecture on “Competition as a Cultural Phenomenon,” – Mannheim had become somewhat of a phenomenon himself, the centre of attention for those who either applauded or excoriated the new “sociology ofknowledge” (Mannheim [1929] 1971). Attended bysuchpresent orfuture luminaries suchas Alfred Weber, Werner Sombart, Emil Lederer, Hans Jonas, Adolf Löwe, Norbert Elias and Leopold von Wiese, among others,the Congress afforded a remarkable audience of sociological elders and neophytes in front of which to showcase the sociology of knowledge. Most important for an ambitious young scholar, Mannheim’s arguments provoked annoyance and dissent. Marxists were upset about Mannheim’s dilution of, and challenge to, Marxismitself;the implication that it could be “unmasked” like other ideologies was particularly unwelcome. Conversely, liberalminded sociologists were suspicious that Mannheim’s theory was little more than Marxism shorn of its most simplistic claims, a materialist Trojan Horse bearing down onthe sociologicalcitadel. And antisociologists (notably, Ernst Robert Curtius [1929] 1990) called down a plague on both ideological houses, insisting to boot that the sociology of knowledge was a nihilist’s charter.9 On all counts, Mannheim’s challenge was hard to ignore. It earned hima growing reputation and contributed to his appointment as Professor of Sociology at Frankfurt’s Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universityin 1930. Ideologie und Utopiewas centrally concerned with political questions notablythe malaise ofWeimar (truncated in the English translation) and discussion of socialism, fascism, liberal democracy, bureaucratic and “historicist” conservatism. Its longest chapter is entitled “Is a Science of Politics Possible?” Mannheim averred that it was. Politics, he says, is a kind of “action” that is novel, previously unregulated, and requiring initiative in contrast to 9 For a sparkling account of the stakes of the conflict between Curtius and Mannheim, see Lepenies ([1985] 1988, pp. 313333). 4 “administration” which is concerned with routinized, settled, “reproductive” behaviour. 10 Thus, an official who attends to a wellworn procedure, or a judge who applies a precedent to an uncontroversial legal case, is not involved in politics in Mannheim’s ([1929] 1936, p. 113)sense. We are in the realm of politics when envoys to foreign countries conclude treaties which were never made before; whenparliamentary representatives carry though new measures of taxation; when an election campaign is waged; when certain opposition groups prepare a revolt or organize strikes – or when these are suppressed. 11 A science of politics is a no other than the sociology of knowledge. It is urgently needed in age of “total” ideology. A total ideology is more than the claim that an opponent is consciously or semiconsciously disguising his interests behind his opinions. That is what Mannheim calls a “particular” conception of ideology which spans the gamut from the outright lie to self deception. When social actors embrace a “particular” notion of ideology, they do so as individuals confronting other individuals. Yet even as they seek to expose duplicity, both parties share the same basic frame of reference and “criteria of validity”. They argue on the assumption that, were it not for the obtuseness and perversity of the other, justice would prevail “justice” being a datumevery clear sighted personcould agree on. Since ego and alter inhabit the same 10 The theoretically resonant German term for action – Handeln –is translated in Shils’s English version as “conduct.”And the title of this chapter in English (“The Prospects of Scientific Politics”) misses the allusion to Max Weber’s postwar lectures on politics and science that is unmistakable in the German original: “Ist Politik als Wissenschaft möglich?” These and other changes were orchestrated not by Shils but by Mannheim himself, who was keen to domesticateIdeologie und Utopie for an Anglophone audience. See the illuminating discussion in Kettler, Meja, and Stehr (1984, pp. 107128) and Kettler and Meja (1995pp. 193246) and, also on translation issues, Kurt H. Wolff’s Introduction to Wolff (1971, at pp. lxilxxii). 11 Mannheim cites the work of Albert Schäffle as the source of this distinction. He acknowledges that the boundary between “routine affairs of state” and “politics” allows many shades of grey. A rather different view of politics is affirmed on p. 212. In the footnote on that page, Mannheim states that “politics” is capable of many definitions, each suited to a particular heuristic purpose and perspective. 5 mental universe, each takes it for granted that a solution exists to what can only be a temporary impasse. The “total” conception of ideology is very different. Seen from that perspective, an individual’s foibles or particular interests are irrelevant. So, too, are his motives. Far more important is that one’s opponent is the bearer of a social stratum whose mind set, categories, and values are at odds with ones own; a person’s views are at root a “function” of the milieu and world view into which he has been inducted. Accordingly, modern political dispute rages over incommensurable Weltanschauungen, “fundamentally divergent thoughtsystems,” which clash without respite. As vectors of impersonal social forces, ciphers of social structure, disputing parties inhabit different, dehumanized, “worlds” (Mannheim ([1929] 1936, pp.5564). No compromise between them is possible because no common faith exists to form the basis of their reconciliation. What are the social conditions that have caused the emergence of the “total” conception of ideology? The modern world, Mannheim points out, is no longer a unitary cosmos. It is deeply fractured along class and cultural axes. The clash between commercial and feudal society, and, later, the growth of Marxist and fascist social movements, betray an epoch in deep crisis (pp. 64 5, 745, 84, 103, 105). Political discourse is marked by reciprocal unmasking and by irreconcilable judgements. As such, we “do not hold up to the adversary that he is worshipping false gods; rather we destroy the intensity of his idea by showing that it is historically and socially determined” (p. 250). Political discussion is, from the very first, more than theoretical argumentation; it is the tearing off of disguises –the unmasking of those unconscious motives which bind the group existence to its cultural aspirations and its theoretical arguments…In addition to 6 the gradual dissolution of the unitary objective worldview, which to the simple man in the street tookthe form of a plurality of divergent conceptions of the world, and to the intellectuals presented itself as the irreconcilable plurality of thoughtstyles, there entered into the public mind the tendency to unmask the unconscious situational motivations in group thinking (Mannheim 1936, p. 39; cf. 401, 48; also Mannheim [1930] 1936, pp. 64, 74, 83, 96, 150, 162, 250). Mannheim himself was ambivalent towards the rhetoric of unmasking, unveiling or debunking – the English terms that Edward Shils and Kurt Wolff offer as renditions ofEnthüllung.1 2 The German word appears early in Mannheim’s work, making its debut in his “Lady from Biarritz,” an unpublished oneact play written in 1920 to evoke liberation from an alienated marriage. 13 It was also a staple of Marxist analysis. 14 The fundamental presuppositions of unmasking might be represented thus: • Unmasking is prompted by suspicion; it is accusatory and tends towards violence • It is something done to others, conceived as opponents or enemies 12 Did Shils’s and Wolff’s translations miss some subtlety of the German that Mannheim himself would have wished to see preserved? After all, the German language does have a specific term for unmasking (demaskieren) which Mannheim himself avoided; enthüllenrather than demaskierenis Mannheim’s word of choice, as in Ideologie und Utopie pp. 16, 17, 33, 236, 249. Two clues suggest that Mannheim’s translators were correct to use “debunk,” “unmask” and “unveil” as very close synonyms. The first, inIdeologie und Utopie,is Mannheim’s resort to the English word “feign” –the context is a discussion by David Hume– as a forerunner ofEnthüllung. (“Diese enthüllende Einstellung ist ein Grundzug unserer Zeit.” etc. Ideologie und Utopie, p. 17.) Feigning is a kind of pretence or dissimulation. The second, and the clincher, is the widespread use of “unmasking” in the Mannheim vetted English translation ofIdeology and Utopia, and especially the chapter written specially for an Anglophone audience, “Preliminary Approach to the Problem.” There “unmasking” is principally employed by Mannheim, with “debunking” and “unveiling” as close seconds. See Mannheim (1936, pp. 39, 40, 41; Mannheim [1929] 1936, pp. 64, 74, 78, 262). 13 I draw on Loader (1985, pp. 3335) who notes that while unmasking appears first as a liberation from convention, it later emerges as an “ultimately stultifying” rhetorical trope. 14 See especially Lukács ([19181930] 1971, pp. 50, 54, 58, 6566, 6970, 7273, etc.). 7 • It supposes transparency; once the mask slips or is torn away the true identity of the rival is exposed • It is a term prone to inducing selfsatisfaction and selfrighteousness, derived from the dishing of a foe • Unmasking is testimony to the fraudulence, disingenuousness and ignorance of human beings • The objective ofunmasking is control–of the self, of others, and of the world Mannheim’s response to the unmasking strategywas inventive. On the one hand, he posed simply as its chronicler, explaining the causes of its emergence and consolidation. The “weapon of … reciprocal unmasking” is a problem to be described, a temporary intellectual impasse, and a challenge to be resolved by the sociology of knowledge (Mannheim 1936, p. 41).1 5 On the other hand, he acknowledged that unmasking represented a formative moment in the emergence of the sociology of knowledge itself, embedded in the discipline’s own presuppositions. Now, because Mannheimwished to go beyond the mentality of unmasking, with its poisonous impact on politicaldiscussion, yet also recognized its skeletal features in his own project, he was caught in a dilemma. He annulled it in an ingenious way. First, Mannheimoccasionally resorts to a Heideggerian formulation, dropping the verbenthüllen (with its Marxist inflection) and replacing it by “uncover” (aufdecken), a salient term and concept inBeing and Time (1927).1 6 By that 15 The gradual obsolescence of unmasking as a strategy, and its replacement bythe sociology of knowledge, is the leitmotif of Mannheim 1925, pp. 6671. Cf. Meja and Stehr (1990, p.5). 16 Heidegger’s vertiginous prose is hard to render plainly. We might say that uncovering, in contrast to unmasking, is • Prompted by the search for truth and understanding • It refers not to an object but to a mode or comportment of Being 8 means, a Heideggerian concept is appropriated for sociological purposes. An example is Mannheim’s assertion that the job of “political sociology” is not to indoctrinate but to “prepare the way” for “arriving at decisions…which have scarcely been noticed before.” Such a discipline will “uncover the determining factors underlying” class judgments, “disclosing” the collective forces that conditionthem. 17 The stratagem’s rhetoricalimpact is deflationary, absorbing one’s rival bydomesticating his terminology. Second, Mannheim takes both Marxist and existentialist ideas but redescribes them in a technical idiom suited to the new sociology of knowledge. This is the language of “functionalism,” “correlation” and “correspondence,” a lexicon that converts the language of suspicion into a social scientific framework. 18 “Function” and its cognates appear often in Mannheim’s Weimar and prewar writings, and they predate Ideology and Utopia. As he observes, every “sociological ‘explanation’… whenever it functionalizes intellectual phenomena – e.g. those found in a given historical group – with respect to a ‘social existence’ that lies behind them, postulates this social existence as a context of meaning more • It supposes the obscurity of Being and of Dasein (the human way of Being); neither can be definitively fathomed • Uncovering illuminates, among much else, Dasein’s “fallen” state and the horizon of death • Uncovering is testimony to the mystery and wonder of Being. • Uncovering is thepursuit of authenticity, knowing one’s possibilities as a questioning being in a world suffocated by conformity. Besides “aufdecken” and “entdecken”, Heidegger does occasionally resort toenthüllenand its derivatives to describe aspects of Dasein and Being, for instance in his discussion of fear in Sein und Zeit¶30 ( = Heidegger [1927] 2001, pp. 140142, at p. 141). 17 Mannheim ([1929] 1936, p. 162 = Mannheim 1929a, pp. 132133). See also the German Contents page (XV) and Mannheim’s summary statement of the concluding remarks under the title “Die Entdeckung der Unentbehrlichkeit des Utopischen.” 18 On “correlation” and “correspondence” see, inter alia, Mannheim ([1929] 1936), p. 58, and Mannheim (1929b, pp. 59115, at pp. 107, 109, 111). One must not exaggerate the extent of this sociological redescription. At the very end ofIdeology and Utopia(p. 262), Mannheim remarks that “the objectivitywhich comes from the umasking of ideologies always takes the form of selfclarification for society as a whole”. And he interpolates into the English version of that text the contention that “by unveiling the hidden motives behind the individual’s decisions” the sociology of knowledge puts a person “in a position to really choose” his own fate. Unveiling/unmasking thus assumes a positive dimension; it results in selfclarification which in turn furnishes the opportunity for selfcontrol. To that extent, Arendt was right to see unmasking as integral to his sociological enterprise, a point to which I return. 9 comprehensive than, though different from, those phenomena, whose ultimate significance is to be understood in relation to this context.”1 9 A sociological approach to intellectual phenomena views them extrinsically, rather than immanently; it is concerned with “functional meaning” as distinct from “intrinsic meaning”; or rather it is concerned to connect both to social reality (Mannheim 1926, p. 124). This in turnrequires “the uncovering of all existentially conditioned relationships that alone make possible the emergence and the impact of an intellectual phenomenon” (Mannheim 1926, p. 121). 20 The contemporary political preoccupation with unmasking, Mannheimopines, is divisive and destructive. Yet he spies an opportunityfor the sociology of knowledge. It promises to offer illumination of the current political scene and clarification of the observer’s position in it. This elucidation is neither disinterested nor free of value judgements. Instead, it affords the engaged and reflexive actor with a means of criticism and self criticism, enhancing his capacity for conscious self control and selfcorrection. A “systematization” of doubt, the sociology of knowledge prepares the ground for “a new conception of objectivity” in which “not only the object but we ourselves fall squarely within out field of vision. We become visible to ourselves,” aware of the multiple determinations that make us the persons we are.2 1 That orientation, in turn, impedes a sense of selfrighteous dogmatism. And it is precisely by offering a comprehensive 19 Mannheim (1926, p. 123). The essay shows the very close relationship between Marxism and Mannheim’s own sociological project, at least at this stage ofhis thought. 20 And on p. 129 Mannheim describes sociological interpretation as a “variant” of the “positivist, functionalization of phenomena.” Mannheim’s view persisted to at least his first lecture course at the University of Frankfurt in 1930, in whichhe contrasted two approaches to understanding human beings. The first standpoint centered on one’s internal life history (that is, on one’s own personality and the unique decisions that flow from it). The second was functionalist in which “motivations aretraced to the social process” and in which one thinks of oneself as an object and in [terms of] categories of objects”. While Mannheim sees both perspectives as fruitful, and acknowledges that sociology has to contend with the tension between them, he is adamant that functionalism “dominates in sociology”. See Mannheim ([19301932] 2001, pp. 7778). 21 “Preliminary Approach to the Problem” Mannheim (1936 p. 47 and, more generally, pp. 4550). Written especially for the English version ofIdeology and Utopia, this essay is postWeimar though prewar. For that reason, I refer to it separately from Ideology and Utopia. Arendt probably never read it. Her own copy ofIdeologie und Utopie, with marginalia, can be found in Bard College’s Arendt collection. 10
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