HANDBOOK OF TRANSPORT GEOGRAPHY AND SPATIAL SYSTEMS Edited by DAVID A. HENSHER institute of Transport Studies, University of Sydney KENNETH J. BUTTON The School of Public Policy, George Mason University KINGSLEY E. HAYNES Institute of Public Policy, George Mason University PETER R. STOPHER The School of Transport Studies, University of Sydney United Kingdom - North America - Japan - India - Malaysia - China Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD 16 1W A, UK Third edition 2008. Previous editions 1982, 1988 Copyright 0 2008 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions expressed in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-0804-4108-5 Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastboume Awarded in recognition of Emerald's production department's adherence to quality systems and processes when preparing scholarly journals for print INVESTOR IN PEOPLE INTRODUCTION TO THE SERIES Transportation and logistics research has now reached maturity, with a solid foundation of established methodology for professionals to turn to and for future researchers and practitioners to build on. Elsevier is marking this stage in the life of the subject by launching a landmark series of reference works: Elsevier’s Handbooks in Transport. Comprising specially commissioned chapters from the leading experts of their topics, each title in the series will encapsulate the essential knowledge of a major area within transportation and logistics. To practitioners, researchers and students alike, these books will be authoritative, accessible and invaluable. David A. Hensher Kenneth J. Button CONTENTS Introduction to the series V Chapter 1 Introduction KINGSLEY E. HAYNES, PETER R. STOPHER, KENNETH J. BUTTON and DAVID A. HENSHER 1. Introduction 2. Recent trends in analysis 3. GPS, GIS and other acronyms 4. Land use and transportation institutions 5. The Handbook Part 1. Transport and Geography 11 Chapter 2 Recent Developments in US Transport Geography WILLIAM R. BLACK 13 1. Some definitions 13 2. Historical background 13 3. Transport geography today 16 4. Recent developments in the field 18 18 4.1. Deregulation 19 4.2. Activity analysis 19 4.3. Sustainable transport 20 4.4. Environmental justice 21 4.5. Economic development 22 4.6. Geographic information systems 4.7. Network design 23 5. Some concluding thoughts 24 6. Closure 24 References 25 Chapter 3 Institutions, Land Use and Transportation 27 ROGER R. STOUGH 1. Introduction 27 2. Theory and recent changes in land use and transportation 28 viii Contents 2.1. Altered demand for urban transportation and land use 29 2.2. Metropolitan decentralization 30 2.3. Edge cities 31 3. Institutions 32 4. Institutional analysis decentralization in metropolitan regions 35 4.1. First-level institutions: US values and culture and metropolitan land use patterns 35 4.2. Second-level institutions: formal institutions 36 4.3. Third-level institutions: governance institutions 38 4.4. Fourth-level institutions: resource allocation and short-term outcomes 39 4.5. Instirutional analysis: conclusions 40 5. Conclusions 41 References 41 Chapter 4 Transportation Location and Environmental Justice: A US Perspective KINGSLEY E. HAYNES 43 1. Introduction 43 2. TRI geography and environmental justice 45 2.1. Environmental justice and TRI 45 2.2. Geography of environmental justice 47 3. Transportation and environmental justice 49 4. Empirical analysis 51 5. Conclusion 59 Acknowledgments 60 References 61 Part 2. Transport and Spatial Form 65 Chapter 5 Transport in the Urban Core EVELYN BLUMENBERG and RANDALL CRANE 67 1. Introduction 67 2. Density 68 3. Poverty 70 4. Decentralization 71 4.1. Spatial mismatch 72 4.2. The journey to work 73 5. Summary 75 References 75 ix Contents Chapter 6 Economic Development and Transport Hubs 77 KENNETH J. BUTTON 1. Introduction 77 2. Airports as hubs 78 3. Regional impacts of hub airport 83 83 3.1. Primary effects 83 3.2. Income multiplier effects 84 3.3. Tertiary effects 84 3.4. Perpetuity effects 4. Empirical analysis 85 85 4.1. Surveys and questionnaires 87 4.2. Multiplier analysis 88 4.3. Econometric models 5. International airline hubs 89 6. Conclusions 94 References 95 Chapter 7 Transport and Spatial Clustering 97 JEAN H.P. PAELINCK 1. Introduction 97 2. Preliminary concepts 98 3. Market approach 99 4. Non-market approach 102 5. Synthesis 104 106 6. Conclusions 109 References Chapter 8 Connecting Mass Transit and Employment 111 THOMAS W. SANCHEZ 111 1. Introduction 112 2. Elements of travel demand 112 2.1. Trip purpose 113 2.2. Trip timing 114 2.3. Trip origins and destinations 114 2.4. Trip mode 115 2.5. Available routes 116 2.6. Trip frequency 116 3. Work trip factors Contents X 117 3.1. Distribution of trip times and day of week 117 3.2. Direction of trip flows 119 3.3. Modal availability 4. Other factors 120 120 4.1. Network characteristics 120 4.2. Network extensiveness 121 4.3. Network connectivity 4.4. Physical access - walking distances 121 122 4.5. Vehicle ownership levels 5. Summary 122 References 123 Part 3. Land LJse and Transportation Modeling 125 Chapter 9 Overview of Land use Transport Models 127 MICHAEL WEGE,NER 1. Introduction 127 2. Existing urban land use transport models 128 128 2.1. Urban change processes 131 2.2. Twenty urban models 3. Future urban land use transport models 138 4. Conclusions 142 Acknowledgment 143 References 143 Chapter 10 Integrated Land Use/Transport Model Requirements 147 ERIC J. MILLER 1. Introduction 147 2. A framework for integrated modeling 147 3. Design issues 151 151 3.1. Physical system representation 153 3.2. Representation of active agents 154 3.3. Representation of processes 156 3.4. Generic design issues 157 3.5. Implementation issues 4. Evaluation criteria 160 160 4.1. Credibility criteria 162 4.2. Feasibility criteria 162 4.3. Usability criteria Contents xi 5. Summary 164 Acknowledgments 164 References 165 Chapter 11 Lowry-type Land Use Models ALAN J. HOROWITZ 167 1. Introduction 167 2. Land use model concept: urban form and land rents 168 2.1. Urban form and land rents 168 169 2.2. Agglomeration 3. Residential location models 169 3.1. Basic form 169 171 3.2. Population segmentation 172 3.3. Measures of attractiveness 3.4. Land constraints 172 3.5. The exogenous workplace 173 3.6. Multimodal applications 173 4. Overview of the Lowry model 173 4.1. Typical data requirements 175 4.2. Anticipated results and cautions 175 4.3. Calibration issues 176 176 4.4. Equilibrium conditions 4.5. Deterrence function parameters 176 4.6. Disutility and the value of time 177 4.7. Definition of basic employment 177 5. Derivation of the Lowry-Garin model 177 5.1. Adjustments to residential attractiveness 179 5.2. Adjustments to service attractiveness 180 6. Iterating a land use model with a travel-forecasting model 180 7. Critique 181 8. Closure 182 References 182 Chapter 12 Econometric Models of Land Use and Transportation 185 MARCIAL ECHENIQUE 1. Introduction 185 2. Theoretical foundations 186 3. A general model of trade and location 188 188 3.1. Functional relationships 190 3.2. Spatial relationships xii Contents 3.3. Estimation of spatial prices 192 3.4. Changing functional relationships (variable demand coefficients) 194 3.5. Modeling the transport systems 195 3.6. Integrated spatial system model 196 3.7. Policy modeling 199 4. Applications 200 5. Conclusions 201 References 20 1 Chapter 13 Introduction to Urban Simulation: Design and Development of Operational Models PAUL WADDELL and GUDMUNDUR F. ULFARSSON 203 1. The context and objectives for urban simulation 203 2. The design and implementation of an operational urban simulation system 205 2.1. Assess the institutional, political, and technical context 207 2.2. Assess the stakeholders, value conflicts, and public policy objectives 210 2.3. Develop measurable benchmarks for the objectives 212 2.4. Inventory the policies to be tested 212 2.5. Map the policy inputs to outcomes 213 2.6. Assess the model requirements 217 2.7. Make preliminary model design choices 219 2.8. Select the modeling approach 222 2.9. Prepare the input data 226 2.10. Develop the model specification 227 2.11. Estimate the model parameters 230 2.12. Calibrate the model system 23 1 2.13. Develop the software application 23 1 2.14. Validate the model system 232 2.15. Operational use 232 3. Conclusion 233 Acknowledgments 233 References 234 Chapter 14 Evolutionary Approaches to Transport and Spatial Systems AURA REGGIANI 237 1. Introduction 237 2. Spatial choice and processes: the role of spatial interaction models 238 Contents xiii 2.1. Spatial interaction models: the analytical form 238 2.2. Spatial interaction behavior and choice behavior 239 3. Non-linear dynamic processes: the logistic form 241 4. Networks and complexity 243 5. Network complexity 245 5.1. Simple models for complex networks: niche models 245 5.2. Complex models for complex networks 246 5.3. Detecting complexity from data 247 6. Network resilience 247 7. Emergence and self-organized criticality 249 7.1. The concepts of emergence and self-organization 249 7.2. The concept of SOC 250 8. Conclusions 25 1 Acknowledgments 252 References 252 Chapter I5 Transportation and Urban Compactness 255 HARRY W. RICHARDSON and CHANG-HEE CHRISTINE BAE 1. Introduction 255 2. Implications of urban economic theory 256 3. Historical evolution 256 4. Interpreting data and the urban scale 257 5. The dynamics of transportation, land use, and urban compactness 25 8 6. Transit-oriented developments 260 7. New urbanism 26 1 8. Neighborhood types 262 9. Intertemporal changes 262 10. Dispersal and travel behavior 263 11. Information technology 264 12. International comparisons 264 13. Conclusions 265 References 266 Chapter I6 Computable General Equilibrium Analysis in Transportation Economics 269 JOHANNES BROCKER 1. Introduction 269 2. A primer in CGE analysis 270 3. Transportation in CGE analysis 277 278 3.1. Goods transport 280 3.2. Passenger transport 3.3. Economic equilibrium and transport network equilibrium 28 1