i Handbook of textile fibre structure ii The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing The Textile Institute is a unique organisation in textiles, clothing and footwear. Incorporated in England by a Royal Charter granted in 1925, the Institute has individual and corporate members in over 90 countries. The aim of the Institute is to facilitate learning, recognise achievement, reward excellence and disseminate information within the global textiles, clothing and footwear industries. Historically, The Textile Institute has published books of interest to its members and the textile industry. To maintain this policy, the Institute has entered into partnership with Woodhead Publishing Limited to ensure that Institute members and the textile industry continue to have access to high calibre titles on textile science and technology. Most Woodhead titles on textiles are now published in collaboration with The Textile Institute. Through this arrangement, the Institute provides an Editorial Board which advises Woodhead on appropriate titles for future publication and suggests possible editors and authors for these books. Each book published under this arrangement carries the Institute’s logo. Woodhead books published in collaboration with The Textile Institute are offered to Textile Institute members at a substantial discount. These books, together with those published by The Textile Institute that are still in print, are offered on the Woodhead website at www.woodheadpublishing. com. Textile Institute books still in print are also available directly from the Institute’s website at www.textileinstitutebooks.com. A list of Woodhead books on textile science and technology, most of which have been published in collaboration with The Textile Institute, can be found on pages xv–xx. iii Woodhead Publishing in Textiles: Number 88 Handbook of textile fibre structure Volume 2: Natural, regenerated, inorganic and specialist fibres Edited by S.J. Eichhorn, J.W.S. Hearle, M. Jaffe and T. Kikutani CRC Press Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC Woodhead publishing limited Oxford Cambridge New Delhi iv Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2009, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC © 2009, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. 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Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK v Contents Contributor contact details xi Part I Natural fibres 1 An introduction to cellulosic fibres 3 D Ciechańska, E. Wesołowska and D Wawro, Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Poland 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Organic and inorganic cellulose solvents 13 1.3 Chemical, physical and biochemical modification of cellulose structure 19 1.4 Overview of technologies for spinning cellulosic fibres 25 1.5 Cellulose-based composite fibres 36 1.6 Prospectives – nanocellulosic fibres 46 1.7 References 51 2 The structure of cotton and other plant fibres 62 M P Ansell, University of Bath, UK and L Y Mwaikambo, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2.1 Introduction 62 2.2 Categorization of plant fibres 63 2.3 Composition and structure of plant fibres 63 2.4 Structure of seed fibres: cotton, kapok and akund 77 2.5 Structure of bast fibre bundles: jute, kenaf, hemp and flax 81 2.6 Structure of leaf fibres: sisal and banana 84 2.7 Structure of fruit fibres: coir and oil palm empty fruit bunch 87 2.8 Conclusions 89 2.9 References and further reading 90 vi Contents 3 An introduction to protein fibres 95 J W S Hearle, University of Manchester, UK 3.1 Introduction 95 3.2 Protein structures 96 3.3 The diversity of protein fibres 99 3.4 Conclusion 105 3.5 References 106 4 The structure and properties of wool and hair fibres 108 F-J Wortmann, University of Manchester, UK 4.1 Introduction 108 4.2 Keratin fibres 109 4.3 Chemical composition 111 4.4 Fibre formation 115 4.5 Morphology 117 4.6 Molecular structures 121 4.7 Mechanical properties and models 125 4.8 Thermal transitions 128 4.9 Conclusions 138 4.10 Sources of further information and advice 138 4.11 References 139 5 The structure of silk 146 F Vollrath, D Porter and C Dicko, University of Oxford, UK 5.1 Introduction 146 5.2 Silk mechanics 147 5.3 Silk composition 152 5.4 Fine structure and morphology 154 5.5 Spider silk: lessons from nature 164 5.6 Silk fibre and its models 175 5.7 Influence of structure on properties 179 5.8 Artificial silks 184 5.9 Conclusions 188 5.10 Acknowledgements 189 5.11 Sources of further information 189 5.12 References 189 Part II Regenerated natural 6 The structure of man-made cellulosic fibres 201 J Ganster and H-P Fink, Fraunhofer-Institute for Applied Polymer Research, Germany 6.1 Introduction and spinning methods 201 Contents vii 6.2 Structural levels and general models 204 6.3 Rayon (viscose)-type fibres 209 6.4 Lyocell-type fibres 218 6.5 Cellulose acetate-based fibres 222 6.6 Future trends 228 6.7 References 229 7 Regenerated protein fibres: a preliminary review 234 M M Brooks, University of Southampton, UK 7.1 Introduction 234 7.2 First and second generation regenerated protein fibres 235 7.3 Third generation regenerated protein fibres 256 7.4 Summary 261 7.5 Notes 261 7.6 Acknowledgements 262 7.7 References 262 8 The structure of alginate, chitin and chitosan fibres 266 B Niekraszewicz, Technical University of Lodz, Poland and A Niekraszewicz, Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, Poland 8.1 Introduction 266 8.2 Alginate fibres 266 8.3 Chitin and chitosan fibres 281 8.4 Conclusions 298 8.5 Sources of further information and advice 298 8.6 Acknowledgements 299 8.7 References 299 Part III Manufactured non-polymer fibres 9 The structure and properties of glass fibres 307 F R Jones, University of Sheffield, UK and N T Huff, Owens Coming Inc., USA 9.1 Introduction 307 9.2 The nature of glass 310 9.3 Fibre manufacture 322 9.4 Strength of glass fibres 326 9.5 Protection of fibres for strength retention 340 9.6 Summary 349 9.7 References 349 viii Contents 10 The structure of carbon fibres 353 O Paris, University of Leoben, Austria and Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Germany and H Peterlik, University of Vienna, Austria 10.1 Introduction 353 10.2 Short historical overview 354 10.3 Types and production of carbon fibres 355 10.4 Fibre structure 357 10.5 Mechanical properties of carbon fibres and their structural origin 368 10.6 Open questions and future directions 372 10.7 Sources of further information and advice 372 10.8 Acknowledgements 373 10.9 References 373 11 Processing, structure and properties of ceramic fibers 378 G Motz, University of Bayreuth, Germany and R K Bordia, University of Washington, USA 11.1 Introduction 378 11.2 Processing, structure and properties of non-oxide fibers 379 11.3 Processing, structure and properties of oxide fibers 398 11.4 Comparison of ceramic fibers 404 11.5 Examples of current and anticipated applications 408 11.6 Research and development priorities 409 11.7 Summary and conclusions 410 11.8 Sources of further information and advice 411 11.9 Acknowledgements 414 11.10 References 414 12 Structure and properties of asbestos 425 E J W Whittalar, formerly of Ferodo Ltd, UK 12.1 Introduction 425 12.2 Classification, occurrence and physical properties of asbestos 426 12.3 Amphibole asbestos 428 12.4 Chrysotile 435 12.5 Synthetic asbestos 448 12.6 References 449 13 Thermally and chemically resistant fibres: structure and properties 450 J W S Hearle, University of Manchester, UK 13.1 Introduction 450 Contents ix 13.2 Thermally resistant fibres 451 13.3 Chemically resistant fibres 454 13.4 Conclusion 456 13.5 References 457 14 Structure, properties and characteristics of optical fibres 458 A Argyros, The University of Sydney, Australia 14.1 Introduction 458 14.2 Waveguide concepts 459 14.3 Fibre structure and optical properties 462 14.4 Types of optical fibres, materials and applications 467 14.5 New materials and material combinations in optical fibres 479 14.6 Conclusions 480 14.7 Sources of further information and advice 481 14.8 References 482 15 Production and applications of hollow fibers 485 M T DeMeuse, Celgard, LLC, USA 15.1 Introduction 485 15.2 Background 486 15.3 Types of fibers and general features 489 15.4 Polymers used 492 15.5 Structure–property relationships 495 15.6 Conclusions and recommendations 496 15.7 Sources of further information and advice 497 15.8 References 498 Index 500