Contents Overview...........................................................................................................................................vii List.of.Contributors.........................................................................................................................xvii Section i the Mental Simulation of Action and Behavior Chapter 1 Action.Representation.and.Its.Role.in.Social.Interaction.............................................3 Jean Decety and Jennifer A. Stevens Chapter 2 Expertise.and.the.Mental.Simulation.of.Action..........................................................21 Sian L. Beilock and Ian M. Lyons Chapter 3 Mental.Imagery.and.Implicit.Memory........................................................................35 Stephen M. Kosslyn and Samuel T. Moulton Chapter 4 “Thou.Shalt.Not.Make.Unto.Thee.Any.Graven.Image”:.The.Distance. Dependence.of.Representation....................................................................................53 Elinor Amit, Daniel Algom, Yaacov Trope, and Nira Liberman Chapter 5 Implementation.Intentions:.The.Mental.Representations.and.Cognitive. Procedures.of.If-Then.Planning..................................................................................69 Tanya S. Faude-Koivisto, Daniela Wuerz, and Peter M. Gollwitzer Section ii Mental Simulation and Memory Chapter 6 False.Memories:.The.Role.of.Plausibility.and.Autobiographical.Belief.....................89 Daniel M. Bernstein, Ryan D. Godfrey, and Elizabeth F. Loftus Chapter 7 Hypnosis.and.Memory:.From.Bernheim.to.the.Present............................................103 Steven Jay Lynn, Abigail Matthews, and Sean Barnes Chapter 8 Episodic.Future.Thought:.Remembering.the.Past.to.Imagine.the.Future................119 Karl K. Szpunar and Kathleen B. McDermott iii iv Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation Chapter 9 Temporally.Asymmetric.Constraints.on.Mental.Simulation:.Retrospection.Is. More.Constrained.Than.Prospection........................................................................131 Leaf Van Boven, Joanne Kane, and A. Peter McGraw Section iii counterfactual thinking: Simulating the Past Chapter 10 Cognitive.Processes.in.Counterfactual.Thinking.....................................................151 Ruth M. J. Byrne and Vittorio Girotto Chapter 11 The.Counterfactual.Mind-Set:.A.Decade.of.Research.............................................161 Elaine M. Wong, Adam D. Galinsky, and Laura J. Kray Chapter 12 Counterfactual.Thinking:.Function.and.Dysfunction...............................................175 Keith D. Markman, Figen Karadogan, Matthew J. Lindberg, and Ethan Zell Section iV Alternatives and Alternate Selves Chapter 13 It’s.Hard.to.Imagine:.Mental.Simulation,.Metacognitive.Experiences,.and.the. Success.of.Debiasing.................................................................................................197 Lawrence J. Sanna, Norbert Schwarz, and Lindsay A. Kennedy Chapter 14 Children’s.Imaginary.Companions:.What.Is.It.Like.to.Have.an.Invisible. Friend?.......................................................................................................................211 Marjorie Taylor, Alison B. Shawber, and Anne M. Mannering Chapter 15 Daydreaming.and.Fantasizing:.Thought.Flow.and.Motivation................................225 Eric Klinger Chapter 16 Simulated.Worlds:.Transportation.Into.Narratives...................................................241 Melanie C. Green and John K. Donahue Section V Perspective taking: Simulating other Minds Chapter 17 The.Happiness.of.the.Fish:.Evidence.for.a.Common.Theory.of.One’s.Own.and. Others’.Actions..........................................................................................................257 Rebecca Saxe Contents v Chapter 18 Two.Forms.of.Perspective.Taking:.Imagining.How.Another.Feels.and. Imagining.How.You.Would.Feel...............................................................................267 C. Daniel Batson Chapter 19 Making.It.Up.and.Making.Do:.Simulation,.Imagination,.and.Empathic. Accuracy....................................................................................................................281 Michael W. Myers and Sara D. Hodges Chapter 20 Perspective.Taking:.Misstepping.Into.Others’.Shoes...............................................295 Nicholas Epley and Eugene M. Caruso Section Vi Simulating and Preparing for the Future Chapter 21 Imagining.a.Rosy.Future:.The.Psychology.of.Optimism.........................................313 William M. P. Klein and Laura E. Zajac Chapter 22 On.the.Excessive.Rationality.of.the.Emotional.Imagination:.A.Two-Systems. Account.of.Affective.Forecasts.and.Experiences.....................................................331 Elizabeth W. Dunn, Noah D. Forrin, and Claire E. Ashton-James Chapter 23 Subjective.Proximity.of.Future.Selves:.Implications.for.Current.Identity,. Future.Appraisal,.and.Goal.Pursuit.Motivation........................................................347 Wei Qi Elaine Perunovic and Anne E. Wilson Chapter 24 Seeing.the.Links.Among.the.Personal.Past,.Present,.and.Future:.How.Imagery. Perspective.in.Mental.Simulation.Functions.in.Defining.the.Temporally. Extended.Self............................................................................................................359 Lisa K. Libby and Richard P. Eibach Chapter 25 Possible.Selves:.From.Content.to.Process.................................................................373 Daphna Oyserman and Leah James Chapter 26 Mental.Contrasting.of.the.Future.and.Reality.to.Master.Negative.Feedback..........395 Gabriele Oettingen and Andreas Kappes Chapter 27 On.the.Consequences.of.Mentally.Simulating.Future.Foregone.Outcomes:. A.Regret.Regulation.Perspective..............................................................................413 Marcel Zeelenberg and Rik Pieters vi Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation Chapter 28 Preparedness,.Mental.Simulations,.and.Future.Outlooks.........................................425 Patrick Carroll and James A. Shepperd Author Index.................................................................................................................................441 Subject Index.................................................................................................................................465 Overview Keith D. Markman, William M.P. Klein, and Julie A. Suhr You.hold.in.your.hands.a.collection.of.essays.on.the.topic.of.mental.simulation..Since.the.early.1980s,. researchers.have.been.examining.fascinating.questions.regarding.the.nature.of.mental.simulation:. the.act.of.imagination.and.the.generation.of.alternative.realities..Some.researchers.have.focused.on. what.happens.in.the.brain.when.an.individual.is.mentally.simulating.an.action.or.forming.a.mental. image,.whereas.others.have.focused.on.the.consequences.of.mental.simulation.processes.for.affect,. motivation,.and.behavior. The.purpose.of.gathering.these.essays.is.to.achieve.a.novel.and.stimulating.integration.of.work. on.imagination.and.mental.simulation.from.a.variety.of.perspectives..It.is.our.hope.that.such.a.mul- tidisciplinary.volume.will.encourage.an.exchange.of.ideas.that.will.benefit.psychology..Although.a. number.of.excellent.volumes.have.recently.been.published.that.examine.the.role.of.time.perspective. in.decision.making.and.social.psychology.more.generally.(e.g..Loewenstein,.Read,.&.Baumeister,. 2003;.Sanna.&.Chang,.2006),.we.have.elected.to.cut.an.even.wider.swath..Thus,.the.present.volume. includes.chapters.on.mental.representation;.simulated.movement.and.its.relationship.with.actual. motor.movement;.visual.imagery;.and.how.individuals.use.mental.simulation.to.infer.the.thoughts,. feelings,.and.intentions.of.others..Our.goal.is.to.forward.the.notion.that.a.wide.range.of.mental. simulation.phenomena.share.a.commonality.of.underlying.processes..To.so,.we.have.invited.neuro- scientists,.developmental.psychologists,.cognitive.psychologists,.social.psychologists,.and.clinical. psychologists.to.unite.under.the.same.umbrella..By.the.end.of.this.book,.it.should.be.clear.that.men- tal.simulation.is.associated.with.a.multifaceted.but.well-integrated.array.of.biological,.neurological,. psychological,.and.social.processes. Before.moving.on.to.a.description.of.the.contents.of.this.volume,.we.would.note.that.this.book. was.inspired.by.several.seminal.papers.on.mental.simulation,.including.Kahneman.and.Tversky’s. (1982).initial.propositions.regarding.the.simulation.heuristic;.Taylor,.Pham,.Rivkin,.and.Armor’s. (1998).article.on.mental.simulation.and.coping;.and.Johnson.and.Sherman’s.(1990).chapter.entitled. “Constructing.and.Reconstructing.the.Past.and.Future.in.the.Present”.that.appeared.in.Higgins.and. Sorrentino’s.Handbook of Motivation and Cognition (Volume.2)..We.thank.these.individuals.for. their.imagination,.creativity,.and.foresight. The.book.is.organized.into.six.sections.that,.we.believe,.offer.a.cogent.characterization.of.the. current.state.of.mental.simulation.research. I. The MenTal SIMulaTIon of acTIon and BehavIor Section.I.begins.by.describing.some.neurophysiological.and.cognitive.underpinnings.of.motor. behavior,.empathic.understanding,.planning,.and.intention.formation..In.the.opening.chapter,. Decety.and.Stevens.(Chapter.1).review.neurophysiological.evidence.indicating.that.actions.are.cen- trally.represented.in.the.brain,.and.that.these.action.representations.lie.at.the.interface.between. individuals.and.their.physical.and.social.environments..According.to.Decety.and.Stevens,.simula- tion.of.movement.precedes.and.plans.for.upcoming.physical.action.and.activates.the.same.cortical. and.subcortical.structures.that.are.responsible.for.motor.execution..Moreover,.they.argue,.motor. simulation.provides.a.“gateway.to.human.social.understanding”.by.allowing.the.motor.system.to. resonate.when.it.perceives.the.actions,.emotions,.and.sensations.of.others..This.capability.of.the. vii viii Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation motor.system.provides.individuals.with.the.primary.means.by.which.individuals.can.understand. each.other.and.can.therefore.be.considered.a.basic.form.of.intersubjectivity. Beilock.and.Lyons.(Chapter.2).also.focus.on.the.important.role.of.motor.simulation.in.account- ing.for.performance.differences.between.experts.and.novices..According.to.the.work.reviewed,.skill. expertise.is.not.merely.reflected.during.actual.(i.e.,.on-line).unfolding.of.performance.but.is.also. observable.off-line.in.terms.of.experts’.superior.ability.to.mentally.simulate.skill-relevant.actions.. In.turn,.recent.work.demonstrates.that.individuals.need.not.be.explicitly.attempting.to.act.for.them. to.call.on.the.motor.systems.used.during.the.actual.execution.of.a.task..Apparently,.skill-level. differences.also.exist.with.regard.to.this.type.of.covert.action.simulation.during.speech.and.text. comprehension,.and.such.differences.can.have.an.impact.on.preference.judgments.for.encountered. objects..In.all,.this.work.suggests.that.the.manner.in.which.experts.mentally.simulate.mastered. actions.may.be.just.as.important.for.the.study.of.skill.learning.and.performance.as.understanding. the.on-line.production.of.such.actions. Kosslyn.and.Moulton.(Chapter.3).continue.to.stress.the.utility.of.motor.simulation.in.their.chap- ter.about.mental.imagery.and.implicit.memory.(i.e.,.memory.that.cannot.be.voluntarily.called.to. mind)..Kosslyn.and.Moulton.review.evidence.suggesting.that.imagery.can.be.used.to.access.implicit. memories.and.describe.how.imagery.can.actually.be.used.to.alter.such.stored.information.(via. mental.practice),.which.in.turn.can.affect.behavior..In.particular,.these.authors.devote.significant. attention.to.the.notion.that.imitation.via.observation.of.another’s.actions.(either.real.or.imagined).is. a.crucial.mechanism.underlying.mental.practice.because.it.bridges.observation.and.action,.and.they. review.the.neural.bases.of.such.imitative.learning. Chapters.4.and.5.shift.the.focus.from.the.representation.and.simulation.of.motor.actions.to.the. implications.of.associative.representations.stored.in.memory.for.mental.simulation.and.subsequent. behavior..In.Chapter.4,.Amit,.Algom,.Trope,.and.Liberman.note.that.pictures.and.words.have.always. been.used.as.different.means.of.representation,.and.they.apply.construal-level.theory.(CLT).to.eluci- date.the.idea.of.a.distance-related.difference.between.pictures.and.words..According.to.CLT,.proximal. and.distal.events.are.processed.in.a.different.manner,.and.extending.this.idea.to.words.and.pictures,. Amit.et.al..propose.that.words.typically.serve.to.represent.objects.that.are.distal.in.time,.space,.society,. or.culture,.whereas.pictures.serve.to.represent.objects.that.are.proximal.along.dimensions.of.distance.. An.important.consequence.of.this.distant-dependent.means.of.representing.words.and.pictures.is. that.people.tend.to.think.of.recent.events.in.pictures.but.of.more.distant.events.in.words..Moreover,. because.a.word.is.at.a.higher.level.of.construal.than.is.a.picture,.the.former.is.better.able.to.function.as. a.conveyor.of.information..Thus,.perhaps.pictures.are.not.necessarily.“worth.a.thousand.words.” Faude-Koivisto,.Wuerz,.and.Gollwitzer.(Chapter.5).conclude.this.section.by.contrasting.imple- mentation.intentions.and.mental.simulations.with.regard.to.how.they.function.during.the.plan- ning.stage.of.goal.pursuit.(see.also.Oettingen.&.Kappes,.Chapter.26)..According.to.the.evidence. reviewed,.mental.simulation.(a.planning.process.by.which.possible.means.or.paths.to.a.goal.are. explored).is.associated.with.an.explorative,.open-minded.processing.style,.whereas.implementation. intention.formation.(a.process.that.leads.to.the.selection.of.a.critical.situation,.which.is.then.linked. to.a.goal-directed.response).is.associated.with.a.closed-minded.processing.style..Moreover,.the. differential.activation.levels.of.the.mental.representations.of.implementation.intentions.and.mental. simulations.underlie.the.distinct.information-processing.modes.that.these.two.self-regulation.tools. trigger..In.addition,.Faude.et.al..provide.novel.insights.into.the.process.by.which.implementation. processes.promote.goal.attainment.by.demonstrating.that.the.formation.of.an.implementation.inten- tion.enhances.the.coactivation.of.the.two.components.that.comprise.such.intentions,.namely,.the. mental.representation.of.the.anticipated.situation.and.the.goal-directed.behavior. II. MenTal SIMulaTIon and MeMory The.chapters.in.Section.II.examine.the.role.of.mental.simulation.in.producing.false.memories. (Chapters.6.and.7).and.explore.commonalities.and.differences.in.the.processes.that.underlie.indi- Overview ix viduals’.ability.to.engage.in.“mental.time.travel”—to.remember.the.past.and.to.imagine.the.future. (Chapters.8.and.9)..Bernstein,.Godfrey,.and.Loftus.(Chapter.6).review.recent.findings.on.false. memories.(i.e.,.memories.for.experiences.that.never.occurred).and.propose.several.potential.mecha- nisms.to.account.for.the.creation.of.false.memories..According.to.Bernstein.et.al.,.the.probability. that.an.individual.will.come.to.believe.that.an.event.is.generally.plausible.and.that.it.likely.occurred. in.the.past.depends,.in.part,.on.the.ease.with.which.the.event.is.processed..Moreover,.for.processing. fluency.to.increase.plausibility.and.autobiographical.belief,.they.hypothesize.that.individuals.must. be.unaware.of.the.actual.source.of.the.fluency..Thus,.the.creation.of.false.memories.depends.on. misattributions.of.processing.fluency..Bernstein.et.al..then.describe.the.results.of.studies.employing. a.“revelation”.paradigm.in.which.individuals.unscramble.key.words.in.the.context.of.remembering. life.events..Their.data.suggest.that.successfully.unscrambling.life.event-related.anagrams.produces. an.experiential.“rush”.of.fluency.that.is.misattributed.to.confidence.that.the.related.event.did,.in. fact,.occur. Next,.Lynn,.Barnes,.and.Matthews.(Chapter.7).review.the.extant.evidence.regarding.the.use- fulness.of.hypnosis.as.a.recall-enhancement.procedure.and.conclude.that.hypnosis.often.produces. false,.yet.believed-in.memories..Lynn.et.al..then.focus.on.mechanisms.that.might.account.for.the. creation.of.false.memories.via.hypnosis..In.particular,.they.examine.the.role.of.expectancies,.argu- ing.that.prehypnotic.beliefs.that.hypnosis.facilitates.recall,.as.well.as.suggestions.implying.that. hypnosis.involves.an.altered.state,.generate.expectancies.that.hypnotic.and.posthypnotic.recall.will. be.improved..Moreover,.because.individuals.expect.that.hypnosis.will.enhance.the.accuracy.of.their. memories,.hypnosis.increases.individuals’.motivation.to.search.for.memories.and.to.report.imag- ined.events.or.guesses.as.real.memories. In.Chapter.8,.Szpunar.and.McDermott.examine.the.premise.that.recollection.of.the.past.is,.in. fact,.a.fundamental.component.of.envisioning.the.future..Invoking.the.notion.of.autonoetic.con- sciousness.initially.forwarded.by.Tulving,.Szpunar.and.McDermott.explain.how.in.simulating.the. future.individuals.sample.elements.of.remembered.events.to.help.generate.potential.future.sce- narios..Thus,.episodic.memory.appears.to.be.an.inherently.constructive.system.that.enables.people. to.simulate.both.their.personal.past.and.future..Empirical.evidence.to.support.this.notion.comes. from.two.sources..First,.it.has.been.shown.that.personal.past.and.future.thoughts.are.selectively. impaired.in.populations.known.to.show.deficits.in.episodic.memory.(e.g.,.amnesiacs,.depressives,. young.children),.and.second,.recent.neurophysiological.data.indicate.that.several.regions.in.the. brain’s.posterior.cortex.are.similarly.engaged.during.personal.past.and.future.thought..Interestingly,. however,.Szpunar.and.McDermott.also.note.that.various.additional.brain.regions.consistently.show. activity.differences.in.favor.of.simulating.the.future.relative.to.remembering.the.past,.and.that.these. regions.are.the.same.as.those.that.have.been.identified.in.studies.that.require.participants.to.men- tally.simulate.motor.movements,.harkening.back.to.work.described.by.Decety.and.Stevens.(Chapter. 1),.Beilock.and.Lyons.(Chapter.2),.and.Kosslyn.and.Moulton.(Chapter.3). Whereas.Szpunar.and.McDermott.(Chapter.8).focus.on.commonalities.between.retrospection. and.prospection,.Van.Boven,.Kane,.and.McGraw.(Chapter.9).focus.on.their.differences..Van.Boven. et.al.’s.basic.premise.is.that.past.tense.mental.simulation.(e.g.,.imagining.a.vacation.that.occurred. 2.years.ago).is.more.constrained—more.subject.to.“reality.checks”—than.is.future.tense.mental. simulation.(e.g.,.imagining.a.vacation.occurring.2.years.in.the.future),.and.that.the.greater.con- straints.on.retrospection.than.prospection.reflect.a.general.temporal.asymmetry.in.retrospection. and.prospection..The.judgmental.implications.of.such.a.temporal.asymmetry.are.numerous..For. instance,.Van.Boven.et.al..present.evidence.indicating.that.mental.simulation.in.the.past.tense.feels. less.imaginative.and.more.difficult.than.mental.simulation.in.the.future.tense..Moreover,.individu- als’.mental.representations.of.past.events.tend.to.be.more.concrete.than.their.mental.representations. of.the.future.(see.Amit.et.al.,.Chapter.4),.people.think.about.emotional.events.in.the.past.in.a.less- extreme.fashion.compared.with.their.thoughts.about.emotional.events.in.the.future,.and.they.tend. to.have.more.optimistic.views.about.their.futures.compared.with.more.realistic.and.mixed.views. about.their.pasts..In.all,.Van.Boven.et.al..argue.that.temporally.asymmetric.constraints.in.imagining. x Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation hypothetical.and.real.events.are.important.to.consider.if.one.is.interested.in.achieving.a.more.accu- rate.understanding.of.mental.simulation.in.everyday.life. III. counTerfacTual ThInkIng: SIMulaTIng The PaST The.chapters.in.this.section.explore.antecedents.to.and.consequences.of.counterfactual.thinking— the.consideration.of.alternative.past.possibilities..Although.several.other.chapters.in.this.volume. make.contact.with.the.counterfactual.thinking.literature.(Chapters.9,.13,.26,.27,.and.28),.the.three. that.appear.in.this.section.are.completely.devoted.to.expanding.our.understanding.of.counterfactu- als..Byrne.and.Girotto.(Chapter.10).describe.the.effects.of.context.on.(a).the.inferences.that.indi- viduals.tend.to.draw.from.counterfactual.conditionals.and.(b).the.sorts.of.features.that.individuals. focus.on.when.they.simulate.counterfactual.alternatives..With.regard.to.the.first,.Byrne.and.Girotto. demonstrate.how.knowledge.of.the.facts.(i.e.,.known.facts.vs..presupposed.facts).affects.the.infer- ences.that.individuals.are.willing.to.make.when.they.reason.about.counterfactual.possibilities,.and. with.regard.to.the.second,.they.describe.recent.empirical.evidence.indicating.that.an.individuals’. role—reader.of.a.hypothetical.series.of.events.versus.actor.actually.experiencing.those.events—can. differentially.affect.the.construction.of.counterfactual.alternatives..Specifically,.readers.tend.to. focus.on.a.protagonist’s.controllable.actions,.such.as.choices,.whereas.actors,.who.have.more.infor- mation.available.to.them.regarding.the.features.of.a.problem-solving.phase,.are.consequently.more. likely.to.generate.counterfactuals.that.focus.on.problem.features. Chapters.11.and.12.both.examine.the.influence.of.counterfactual.thinking.on.creativity,.prob- lem.solving,.emotion,.and.motivation,.but.they.do.so.in.different.ways..Wong,.Galinsky,.and.Kray. (Chapter.11).focus.on.how.counterfactual.thinking.has.an.impact.on.subsequent.task.performance. by.instantiating.a.“mindset,”.or.process.of.thought.that.tunes.information.processing,.attention,.and. thought.production..The.initial.work.described.by.Wong.et.al..uses.a.counterfactual.priming.proce- dure.to.instantiate.a.mindset.that.elicits.a.relational.processing.style—“a.structured.form.of.thought. involving.a.consideration.of.relationships.and.the.associations.between.a.set.of.stimuli”.(Wong.et. al.,.p..168)..Priming.this.mindset.has.the.effect.of.enhancing.decision-making.accuracy.and.perfor- mance.on.creative.association.tasks..Next,.Wong.et.al..describe.how.the.relational.processing.style. is.more.likely.activated.by.generating.subtractive.counterfactuals.(i.e.,.those.that.remove.antecedent. elements.when.reconstructing.reality),.whereas.generating.additive.counterfactuals.(i.e.,.those.that. add.antecedent.elements.to.reconstruct.reality).tend.to.activate.an.expansive.processing.style.that. broadens.conceptual.attention..In.support,.the.authors.present.empirical.evidence.indicating.that. additive.counterfactual.thinking.mindsets.enhance.performance.on.idea-generation.tasks,.whereas. subtractive.counterfactual.mindsets.enhance.performance.on.association.tasks. In.contrast.to.Wong.et.al.’s.(Chapter.11).focus.on.process.activation.via.counterfactual.thought,. Markman,.Karadogan,.Lindberg,.and.Zell.(Chapter.12).examine.how.counterfactual.thought.con- tent.has.emotional,.motivational,.and.behavioral.consequences.for.the.individual..The.first.part.of. Markman.et.al.’s.chapter.focuses.on.the.functional.benefits.of.counterfactual.thinking.as.specified. by.the.reflection.and.evaluation.model.(REM)..According.to.the.REM,.the.emotional.and.motiva- tional.effects.of.counterfactual.thinking.occur.via.an.interaction.between.counterfactual.direction. (upward.vs..downward).and.counterfactual.processing.mode.(reflective.vs..evaluative)..Counterfac- tuals.that.elicit.negative.affect.are.more.likely.to.have.preparative.and.motivational.value,.whereas. counterfactuals.that.elicit.positive.affect.are.more.likely.to.reap.emotional.benefits..In.turn,.the. motivational.effects.of.counterfactuals.are.moderated.by.the.regulatory.fit.between.the.counterfac- tual.and.contextually.salient.goal.means..Markman.et.al..then.shift.their.focus.to.considering.some. dysfunctional.implications.of.counterfactuals,.including.the.role.of.upward.counterfactuals.in.elicit- ing.self-blame,.the.possibility.that.downward.counterfactuals.can.lower.personal.standards.of.moral. and.ethical.conduct,.and.the.self-defeating.and.ruminative.consequences.of.upward.counterfactual. thinking.in.nonrepeatable.situations.and.for.individuals.who.are.depressed.and.state.oriented. Overview xi Iv. alTernaTIveS and alTernaTe SelveS The.chapters.in.Section.IV.examine.the.judgmental.implications.of.considering.alternative.out- comes.and.explore.the.phenomenology.and.motivational.consequences.of.simulating.alternate. selves..Sanna,.Schwarz,.and.Kennedy.(Chapter.13).lead.off.the.section.by.proposing.and.describing. evidence.for.a.general.model.of.judgmental.biasing.and.debiasing..According.to.Sanna.et.al.,.the. production.and.reduction.of.judgmental.biases.are.a.function.of.the.joint.influence.of.accessible. thought.content.and.accompanying.metacognitive.experiences..As.a.default,.individuals.consider. their.metacognitive.experiences.relevant.to.what.they.are.thinking.about.and.thus.draw.on.such. experiences.as.a.source.of.information.that.qualifies.the.implications.of.accessible.thought.content.. Thus,.focal.thoughts.give.rise.to.bias.when.they.are.easy.to.bring.to.mind.(see.also.Bernstein.et.al.,. Chapter.6).but.attenuate.bias.when.they.are.difficult.to.bring.to.mind..Conversely,.thoughts.about. alternatives.attenuate.bias.when.they.come.to.mind.easily.but.increase.bias.when.they.are.difficult. to.bring.to.mind..More.generally,.what.individuals.conclude.from.their.metacognitive.experiences. depends.on.the.nature.of.the.experience.and.the.particular.naive.theory.of.mental.processes.that. is.applied..However,.if.the.informational.value.of.the.metacognitive.experience.to.the.judgment.at. hand.is.discredited,.judgments.will.instead.be.solely.based.on.accessible.declarative.information.. Sanna.et.al..apply.their.model.to.a.range.of.judgmental.phenomena,.including.the.hindsight.bias,. temporal.confidence.shifts,.the.planning.fallacy,.and.the.impact.bias. Chapters.14–16.focus.on.the.phenomenology.and.motivational.effects.of.imagining.alternate. selves..Taylor,.Shawber,.and.Mannering.(Chapter.14).examine.the.phenomenon.of.imaginary.com- panion.creation.by.young.children,.describing.the.typical.features.of.an.imaginary.friend.and. exploring.whether.invisible.friends.are.experienced.as.extensions.of.the.self.or.as.autonomous. agents..In.addition,.Taylor.et.al..cite.empirical.evidence.suggesting.that.children.develop.personal. relationships.with.their.imaginary.companions.and.posit.that.invisible.friends.provide.a.vehicle.for. communicating.narratives..Despite.children’s.detailed.descriptions.and.emotional.attachments.to. their.invisible.friends,.however,.the.vast.majority.of.them.appear.to.understand.that.invisible.friends. are.pretend. Klinger’s.chapter.(Chapter.15).examines.daydreaming,.which.he.defines.as.nonworking.thought. that.is.either.spontaneous.or.fanciful..After.establishing.some.basic.properties.of.daydreams.(e.g.,. dimensions.of.thought.flow,.duration.of.thought.segments,.proportion.of.thoughts.that.are.day- dreams),.Klinger.describes.the.critical.role.played.by.goals.and.current.concerns.in.determining. daydream.content..According.to.Klinger,.a.current.concern.(i.e..having.a.goal).sensitizes.an.indi- vidual.to.respond.to.cues.associated.with.goal.pursuit,.and.for.this.reason.goal-related.cues.are.pro- cessed.automatically,.receive.priority.in.processing,.and.are.reflected.in.daydream.content..Klinger. also.advances.the.proposition.that.daydreaming.is.a.mental.default,.a.notion.that.is.supported.by. recent.neurophysiological.evidence.indicating.that.mindwandering.entails.activity.in.neural.path- ways.that.are.known.to.be.associated.with.the.resting.mind..Speculating.on.the.evolutionary.advan- tage.of.a.default.state.of.mental.rest.that.spontaneously.processes.goal.pursuits,.Klinger.suggests. that.(a).while.a.person.is.occupied.with.one.task,.such.a.system.reminds.the.individual.of.their.larger. agenda;.(b).the.system.provides.opportunities.for.spontaneous.problem.solving;.(c).daydreams.serve. as.a.form.of.mental.rehearsal;.and.(d).daydreams.act.as.a.form.of.review.of.past.behavior.that.can. help.individuals.gain.insights.that.might.improve.their.future.performance. To.conclude.the.section,.Green.and.Donahue.(Chapter.16).describe.a.psychological.theory.of. transportation.into.narrative.worlds.that.suggests.that.becoming.immersed.in.a.story.can.have. powerful.emotional.and.persuasive.consequences..According.to.Green.and.Donahue,.during.trans- portation,.readers’.imaginative.resources.have.them.feeling.removed.from.their.surroundings.and. completely.engaged.in.the.world.created.by.the.author..After.outlining.how.transportation.is.related. to.and.distinct.from.other.forms.of.mental.simulation,.the.authors.focus.on.some.of.the.psychologi- cal.processes.underlying.the.transportation.experience..For.instance,.transportation.appears.to.link. vivid.images.with.beliefs.implied.by.the.story.and.thereby.increase.the.story’s.persuasive.power..