HANDBOOK OF ENERGY AUDITS Seventh Edition This page intentionally left blank HANDBOOK OF ENERGY AUDITS Seventh Edition Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M. William J. Younger, C.E.M. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thumann, Albert Handbook of energy audits / Albert Thumann. -- 7th ed.. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-88173-577-9 (alk. paper) -- ISBN 0-88173-578-7 (electronic) -- ISBN 1-4200-6791-5 (distributor (taylor & francis) : alk. paper) 1. Energy auditing--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Younger, William J. II. Title. TJ163.245.T48 2007 658.2’6--dc22 2007036748 Handbook of Energy Audits / Albert Thumann. ©2008 by The Fairmont Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published by The Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865 http://www.fairmontpress.com Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA E-mail: [email protected] Distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 23-25 Blades Court Deodar Road London SW15 2NU, UK E-mail: [email protected] Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0-88173-577-9 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.) 1-4200-6791-5 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions. iv Contents Preface ................................................................................................................vii 1 Energy Auditing Basics ........................................................................1 2 Energy Accounting and Analysis .....................................................13 3 Understanding the Utility Bill ..........................................................37 4 Energy Economics ..............................................................................47 5 Survey Instrumentation ......................................................................87 6 The Building Envelope Audit .........................................................115 7 The Electrical System Audit ............................................................161 8 The Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Audit ..............199 9 Upgrading HVAC Systems for Energy Effi ciency Verifi cation of System Performance ...............................................223 10 The Physical Plant Audit .................................................................235 11 Central Plant Retrofi t Considerations ............................................251 12 Maintenance and Energy Audits ....................................................261 13 Self-Evaluation Checklists ................................................................287 14 In Transition from Energy Audits to Industrial Assessments .....................................................................309 15 A Compendium of Handy Working Aids ....................................319 16 Energy Auditing Software Directory .............................................373 17 World-class Energy Assessmeents ..................................................391 Glossary ...........................................................................................................411 Index ................................................................................................................429 v This page intentionally left blank Preface As a result of changes in the energy marketplace, the role of energy audits has greatly expanded. There is an increasing need in business and industry to more effectively man age energy use. Reducing utility costs is still one of the most effective and achievable strategies for lowering the operating costs. Today, many large energy consumers are contracting with energy service providers to implement energy projects. This arrangement neces- sitates the establishing of baseline energy usage as well as quantifi cation of savings resulting from project implementation. Accurate and complete energy audits are essential as a means to assess and verify a project’s success at meeting contracted goals. This book is designed to provide you with the fundamental knowledge you need to evaluate how energy is used in commercial facilities, establish accurate baseline information, and identify where energy consumption can be reduced. The Energy Auditing Handbook will also provide you with all the information you need to establish an energy audit program for your facility. Energy accounting procedures, electrical, mechanical, building and process systems analysis, life cycle costing, and maintenance man- agement are all covered in detail. This book is a fi rst level energy audit reference for energy engi- neers as well as non-engineers and others new to the fi eld of energy management. It will guide the reader through the audit process system by system to help them identify and prioritize conservation potential as well as identify several low-cost and no-cost operational and main- tenance opportunities. The book provides practical example calculations to help readers understand and apply basic energy calculations to their projects. By using this text, energy engineers can gain a better understand- ing of facility energy use and make valuable contributions to on-going efforts to improve energy effi ciency. Bill Younger, CEM Albert Thumann, PE, CEM vii This page intentionally left blank Energy Auditing Basics 1 Chapter 1 Energy Auditing Basics E nergy audits can mean different things to different individuals. The scope of an energy audit, the complexity of calculations, and the level of economic evaluation are all issues that may be handled differently by each individual auditor and should be defined prior to be- ginning any audit activities. This chapter will review the various ap- proaches to energy auditing and outline a standard approach to organizing and conducting an energy audit. An energy audit can be simply defined as a process to evaluate where a building or plant uses energy, and identify opportunities to re- duce consumption There is a direct relationship to the cost of the audit, how much data will be collected and analyzed, and the number of conservation opportunities identified. Thus, a first distinction is made between cost of the audit which determines the type of audit to be performed. The sec- ond distinction is made between the type of facility. For example, a building audit may emphasize the building envelope, lighting, heating, and ventilation requirements. On the other hand, an audit of an indus- trial plant emphasizes the process requirements. TYPES OF ENERGY AUDITS Before starting the energy audit, it is helpful to have some idea of the scope of the project and level of effort necessary to meet expectations. There are three basic types or levels of energy audit, any of which may meet your requirements. The basic audit levels, in order of increasing complexity are: Level 1—The Walk-Through Audit The walk-through audit, as its name implies, is a tour of the facility to visually inspect each of the energy using systems. It will typically in- clude an evaluation of energy consumption data to analyze energy use 1