Dean McKay Eric A. Storch   Editors Handbook of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Second Edition Handbook of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Dean McKay • Eric A. Storch Editors Handbook of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Second Edition Editors Dean McKay Eric A. Storch Department of Psychology Department of Psychiatry Fordham University and Behavioral Sciences Bronx, NY, USA Baylor College of Medicine Houston, TX, USA ISBN 978-3-031-14079-2 ISBN 978-3-031-14080-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14080-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2011, 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents Part I 1 Classification of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders . . . . . 3 Dean McKay and Eric A. Storch 2 Issues in Differential Diagnosis: Phobias and Phobic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Mark B. Powers, Kiara Leonard, Maris Adams, Emma Turner, Jamie R. Pogue, Marjorie L. Crozier, Emily Carl, and Seth J. Gillihan 3 Issues in Differential Diagnosis: Considering Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Nicole Fleischer, Jonathan Rabner, Julia Spandorfer, and Philip C. Kendall 4 Cognitive Behavioral Models of Phobias and Pervasive Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Dean McKay 5 Neurochemistry of Childhood Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Lauren Havel, Pranav Mehta, Ankit Gautam, Edward Danielyan, and Kirti Saxena 6 Genetics of Childhood and Adolescent Anxiety and Obsessive- Compulsive Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Paul D. Arnold, Lilit Antonyan, Francis Routledge, and Sandra Meier 7 Taxometric Methods in Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Christian A. Hall and Joshua J. Broman-Fulks 8 Dimensional Diagnosis of Anxiety in Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Dean McKay 9 Transdiagnostic Treatment Models for Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Ashley R. Karlovich, Elizabeth R. Halliday, and Jill Ehrenreich-May v vi Contents Part II 10 Differential Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Child and Adolescent Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . 141 Alasdair Vance, Jo Winther, and Elham Shoorcheh 11 Comorbid and Secondary Depression in Child and Adolescent Anxiety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Robert W. Garvey, Michelle K. Hiner, Chris A. Kelly, and Margaret S. Andover 12 The Role of Disgust in Childhood Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . 173 Ana Rabasco and Dean McKay 13 Problems in Emotion Regulation in Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Section: Diagnostic Components of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Kristel Thomassin, Marni L. Jacob, Kara B. West, Molly E. Hale, and Cynthia Suveg 14 Emergent Personality Features in Adolescent Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Amanda Venta and Jaime L. Anderson 15 Family Components of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Amanda Palo and Abigail Candelari Part III 16 Specific Phobias in Children and Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Thompson E. Davis III, Jerrica Guidry, and Thomas H. Ollendick 17 Separation Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents . . . . . 249 Nicole E. Caporino, Joyce X. Wong, and Arianna O’Brien Cannon 18 The Treatment of Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Youth . . . . . 271 Carl F. Weems and R. Enrique Varela 19 Selective Mutism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Karin L. Price, Natalie Delgado, and Kelly N. Banneyer 20 Treatment of Social Anxiety in Children and Adolescents . . . . . 299 Tracy L. Morris and Johann D’Souza 21 Treatment of Pediatric Post- traumatic Stress Disorder . . . . . . . 315 Elissa J. Brown, Komal Sharma-Patel, Kaitlin Happer, and Amy Hyoeun Lee Contents vii 22 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Allie N. Townsend, Johann M. D’Souza, Andrew G. Guzick, and Eric A. Storch 23 Pharmacological Treatment of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Sohail Nibras, Anh Truong, and Laurel L. Williams 24 A Common Mechanism for Anxiety Disorders and Drug Addiction: Implications for Current and Novel Pharmacological Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Marco A. Grados and Bushra Rizwan Part IV 25 Food Neophobia in Children: Misnomer, Anxious Arousal, or Other Emotional Avoidance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Dean McKay and Charlene Minaya 26 Anxiety-Related Problems in Developmental Disabilities . . . . . . 379 Morgan M. McNeel, Emily R. Jellinek, and Eric A. Storch 27 Treatment of Youth Anxiety in the Context of Family Dysfunction and Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Rebecca G. Etkin and Eli R. Lebowitz 28 Parent Training for Childhood Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Adam B. Lewin and Kelly Kudryk 29 School-Based Interventions for Child and Adolescent Anxiety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Jeremy K. Fox, Samantha Coyle, Taylor Walls, Avi Kalver, Marcus Flax, Aleta Angelosante, and Carrie Masia Warner 30 Social Disability and Impairment in Childhood Anxiety . . . . . . 445 Laura John-Mora, Abigail M. Ross, and Jordana Muroff Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Part I 1 Classification of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Dean McKay and Eric A. Storch Classification in psychopathology has moved classify newly discovered entities. Again, contro- through several important stages, based on the tra- versies exist (e.g., cloud theory versus heliocen- jectory of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual tric theory of atomic structure; Cox, 1996), but from its first edition to the current, fifth edition. these do not substantially alter the manner of uti- The initial two editions were marked by a unify- lizing the classification system. ing theoretical basis whereby specific diagnoses Unlike other branches of science, however, were conceptualized in psychodynamic terms. psychiatry, psychology, and their associated pro- This tradition is similar to the formulation of tax- fessions are not unified by a single theory of mind, onomies in other branches of science. For exam- and most conditions likely have multiple determi- ple, in biology the reliance on a hierarchical nants. Further, most users of the original DSMs arrangement from kingdom down to species is noted the limited reliability of the taxonomy it laid based on a specific theoretical framework whereby out, and with the third edition came a radical all newly discovered organisms may be readily change in how psychiatric classification was con- classified. While not totally without controversy, ceptualized: purely descriptive and atheoretical. such as the movement toward cladistics (whereby This allowed users to arrive at diagnoses with organisms are classified by ancestry rather than much greater precision, and the aim was to estab- present biological structure; Scott-Ram, 2008; lish a set of conditions that had ecological and syn- Williams & Ebach, 2020), these represent mere dromal validity. This has served the field well and refinements rather than sea-c hange level altera- has led to important advances in assessment, treat- tions in classification. Another example is in ment, and etiological understanding. However, chemistry, where elements are classified by a the- unlike classification systems in other branches of ory-driven framework regarding the organization science, should a new condition arise, there is no of atoms, with specifications within the periodic inherent mechanism for classifying it. Instead, any table of elements (such as noble gases, metals, new diagnosis must wait until the revisions are etc.) that also readily guides researchers in how to planned for the next edition of the DSM, where- upon the proposed diagnosis is determined by D. McKay (*) committee. The current edition (the DSM-5-TR; Department of Psychology, Fordham University, American Psychiatric Association, 2022) lays out Bronx, NY, USA diagnoses in a single- axial framework that remains e-mail: [email protected] committee-driven. The recent text revision aims to E. A. Storch address racial and cultural disparities present in Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA prior editions (Canady, 2022). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3 D. McKay, E. A. Storch (eds.), Handbook of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14080-8_1 4 D. McKay and E. A. Storch This process of committee-driven descriptive LeDoux, 2009; LeDoux & Schiller, 2009; Marek diagnoses has led to a growth of diagnoses, but & Sah, 2018). This leaves us with the curious rarely have any been eliminated. In the anxiety problem of a biologically based theoretical disorders, two disorders stand out as illustrative framework from which many disorders will be of this point. On the one hand, agoraphobia with- classified but that also fails to adequately explain out history of panic has been in the DSM since a serious and debilitating condition that is con- the arrival of the third edition. However, this par- sidered a putative member. Moreover, although ticular diagnosis has long been recognized as other etiological features are considered in this either so rare as to not exist, or when actually framework, there is the distinct possibility of an diagnosed to likely have had a panic-related ori- inaccurate bias towards a neurobiological expla- gin even if panic is completely and successfully nation for disorders against a more holistic under- avoided by the sufferer (McNally, 1994). On the standing that incorporates multiple other hand, of the very few diagnoses that have determinants. been eliminated is overanxious disorder of child- hood. Interestingly, this diagnosis was only elim- inated in that the criteria for a different disorder Current Standing of Childhood (generalized anxiety disorder) were extended to Anxiety Diagnosis encompass diagnosis in children. While these are but two examples, they typify the approach to the At the present time, most of the anxiety disorders DSM as contemporarily construed. Committees in the DSM are age-downward extensions of determine putative diagnoses for larger catego- adult diagnoses. The exceptions to this are sepa- ries, based on the existing literature on etiology, ration anxiety, school refusal, and selective mut- incidence, and prevalence. At the same time, ism. While there are exceptions, all anxiety existing diagnoses are very rarely eliminated, disorders, when present in children, have unique even if infrequently encountered or its basis is manifestations that call for special clinical skill seriously questioned by the broader community in assessment and intervention. One important of researchers for that disorders’ member class. distinction between childhood and adult manifes- The advent of the DSM-5 has included several tations of anxiety is that it is not required or even new diagnoses and categories. For example, there expected that children have clear insight into the is now the obsessive-compulsive related disor- nature of their fears. The only adult disorder ders, which includes the new diagnoses of hoard- where insight is not required is OCD (now part of ing disorder (a condition rarely present in a separate class of disorders, but still marked by children), and excoriation disorder. No anxiety extreme anxiety), and in this case, the modifier disorders were eliminated in the most recent “with poor insight” or “with mixed insight” is version. available in the DSM-5-TR, and this manifesta- When the first edition of this book was being tion has come under specific scrutiny as a poor prepared, the DSM-5 was in the later stages of prognostic indicator for treatment response (i.e., development. At the time, many of the proposed McKay et al., 2010). changes for the fifth edition of the DSM included A second major distinction involves the the potential role of fear circuitry modeling for behavioral manifestation of different anxiety dis- conceptualizing candidate disorders (i.e., Britton orders. In children, it is not unusual for the pre- & Rauch, 2009). This did not fully manifest in sentation to have clear developmental the final version of the manual. Additionally, the consequences. For example, children with school various proposed neural circuitry models did not refusal, when untreated, face significant develop- readily account for learning processes that might mental limitations resulting from reduced social- influence changes in the connectivity among ization and limited opportunities for establishing putative brain areas, despite repeated findings normative age-related behaviors. This is likewise from neuroscientists to the contrary (Debiec & true in social anxiety and the dimensionally less