HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DOG BEHAVIOR AND TRAINING Volume Two Etiology and Assessment of Behavior Problems H ANDBOOK OF A D B T PPLIED OG EHAVIOR AND RAINING Volume Two Etiology and Assessment of Behavior Problems Steven R. Lindsay STEVEN R. LINDSAY, MA,is a dog behavior consultant and trainer who lives in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he provides a variety of behavioral training and counseling services. In addition to his long career in working with companion dogs, he previously evaluated and trained highly skilled military working dogs as a member of the U.S. Army Biosensor Research Team (Superdog Program). Mr. Lindsay also conducts workshops and seminars and is the author of numerous publications on dog behavior and training. ©2001 Iowa State University Press All rights reserved Blackwell Publishing Professional 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014 Orders: 1-800-862-6657 Office: 1-515-292-0140 Fax: 1-515-292-3348 Web site: www.blackwellprofessional.com Cover image: “Puppy Carrying a Pheasant Feather,” 16th century by Yi Om (Korean). Courtesy of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Blackwell Publishing, provided that the base fee of $.10 per copy is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923. For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payments has been arranged. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is 0-8138-2868-6/2001$.10. Printed on acid-free paper in the United States of America First edition, 2001 Volume Two: Etiology and Assessment of Behavior Problems International Standard Book Number: 0-8138-2868-6 The Library of Congress has catalogued Volume One as follows: Lindsay, Steven R. Handbook of applied dog behavior and training/Steven R. Lindsay; foreword by Victoria Lea Voith.—1st ed. p. cm Contents: v. 1. Adaptation and learning. ISBN 0-8138-0754-9 1. Dogs—Behavior. 2. Dogs—Training. I. Title. SF433.L56 1999 636.7′0887—dc21 99-052013 The last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 Contents Preface xi Acknowledgments xv 1 History of Applied Dog Behavior and Training 3 Social Parallelism, Domestication, and Training 3 Dogs and the Ancient World 5 Roots of Modern Training 9 Organized Competitive Obedience 13 Dogs and Defense 14 The Monks of New Skete 16 New York and the North American Society of Dog Trainers 16 Science and Behavior 16 Applied Dog Behavior 18 Contemporary Trends in Dog Training 21 References 22 2 Behavioral Assessment 25 Part 1: Descriptive and Functional Assessment 26 Behavioral Fact-finding 26 Defining Behavior as a Problem 29 Functional Analysis and Working Hypotheses 31 Dead-dog Rule 31 Training Plan 33 Describing and Classifying Behavior Problems 39 Common Etiological Factors Underlying Behavior Problems 44 Control and Management of Behavior Problems versus Cure 50 Part 2: Evaluation Forms 52 Client Worksheet 52 Dog Behavior Questionnaire 53 Puppy Behavior Profile 60 Puppy Temperament Testing and Evaluation 64 References 68 3 Fears and Phobias 69 Incidence of Fear-related Behavior Problems 69 Assessment and Evaluation of Fear-related Problems 70 Contributions of Learning 71 vi CONTENTS What Is Fear? 73 Innate and Acquired Fear 73 Fear and Conditioning 75 Anxiety 79 Phobia 80 Expectancy Bias 83 Prediction and Control 85 Efficacy Expectancies 86 Primal Sensory Modalities Mediating Attraction and Aversion 89 Play and Fear 90 References 91 4 Attachment, Separation, and Related Problems 93 Part 1: Attachment and Separation 93 Attachment and Separation Distress 93 Bowlby’s Social Bond Theory 94 Psychobiological Attunement: The Bioregulatory Hypothesis 96 Opponent-process Theory and Separation Distress 96 Supernormal Attachment Hypothesis 99 Neoteny and Dependency 100 Biological Stress and Separation Distress 101 Separation Distress and Coactive Influences 102 Part 2: Ontogenesis of Separation Distress 107 Development of Attachments and Separation-related Distress 107 Attachment and Learning 111 Comparison Between Dog and Wolf Exposure to Social Separation 115 Part 3: Separation-related Problems 116 Worry and Guilt: The Human Dimension of Separation Distress 117 Behavioral Expressions of Separation Distress 117 Assessing Separation-related Problems 119 Etiologies, Ethology, and Risk Factors 122 Separation Distress and Retroactive Punishment 124 Aging and Separation-related Problems 125 References 126 5 Excessive Behavior 131 Part 1: Compulsive Behavior 131 Definitions 131 Etiology 133 Displacement Activity 135 Adjunctive Behavior and Compulsions 137 Conflict and Coactive Factors 140 Compulsive Behavior Problems 143 Assessment and Evaluation 146 Prevention 147 CONTENTS vii Part 2: Hyperactivity 147 Hyperactivity versus Hyperkinesis 147 Signs and Incidence 148 Etiology 149 CNS-stimulant-response Test 153 Dietary Factors and Hyperactivity 153 Two Case Histories 154 Cognitive Interpretations and Speculation 155 Behavioral Side Effects of Hyperactivity 156 References 157 6 Aggressive Behavior: Basic Concepts and Principles 161 Part 1: Introduction 161 Characteristics of Dogs That Bite: Age and Sex 161 Incidence and Targets of Aggression 162 Emotional Trauma of Dog Attacks on Children 164 Dogs That Kill 164 Dog Attacks versus Human Fatal Assaults on Children 165 Basic Categories 166 Classifying Aggression: Motivational Considerations 168 A Nomenclature of Aggressive Behavior 175 Predatory Behavior 179 Genetics and Aggression 180 Hormones and Aggressive Behavior 181 Nutrition and Aggression 188 Role of Integrated Compliance and Obedience Training 189 Part 2: Children, Dogs, and Aggression 191 Preventing Problems 191 Dog and Baby 194 Evaluating the Risk 194 Preventing Bites 196 References 197 7 Intraspecific and Territorial Aggression 203 Part 1: Intraspecific Aggression 203 Etiology and Assessment 204 Owner Characteristics of Aggressorsand Victims 204 Domestication and Developmental Factors 205 Hormonal Influences 206 Socialization and Aggression 207 ViragoSyndrome 209 Aggression Between Dogs Sharing the Same Household 211 Prevention 212 Part 2: Territorial Defense 212 Control-vector Analysis of Territory 213 How Territory Is Established and Defended 217 viii CONTENTS Free-floating Territory 221 Territorial Aggression versus Group Protection 221 Variables Influencing Territorial Aggression 222 Part 3: Fear-related Aggression 225 Fear and Aggression 225 References 226 8 Social Competition and Aggression 229 Assessment and Identification 229 Concept of Social Dominance 234 Defining Dominance 234 Structure of Dominance Relations 235 Social Dominance and Aggression 236 Dominance and Social Harmony 238 Interspecies Social Dominance 242 Social Distance and Polarity 244 Affiliation and Social Dominance 246 Play and Aggression 250 Cognition and Aggression 253 Anxiety, Frustration, and Aggression 254 Behavioral Thresholds and Aggression 256 Aversive Trauma, Social Loss, and Aggression 259 Learning and Dominance 260 Social Competition, Development, and Aggression 264 Temperament Tests and Aggression 266 Prevention 269 References 269 9 Appetitive and Elimination Problems 273 Part 1: Appetitive Problems 273 Excessive Eating and Obesity 273 Inappetence and Anorexia 277 Pica and Destructive Behavior 277 Pica and Scavenging 279 Coprophagy 280 Putative Causes of Coprophagy 281 Evolutionary Rationale 283 Part 2: Elimination Problems 285 Physiology, Neural Control, and Learning 285 Elimination Behavior 287 Common Elimination Problems 289 Defecation Problems 295 Flatulence 296 Grass Burn and Urine 296 References 297 CONTENTS ix 10 Cynopraxis 301 Cynopraxic Counseling 301 Behavior Problems and the Family 303 Psychological Factors 306 Attributional Styles 308 Psychodynamic Factors 311 Social Placebos 312 The Cynopraxic Trainer’s Attitude 313 References 314 Index 317 Preface IN VOLUME 1, Adaptation and Learning,it selection by learning is possible. Learning is was argued that the functional epigenesis of primarily concerned with obtaining predictive behavior takes place under the influence of information about the environment and refin- various environmental and biological con- ing phenotypic routines and strategies for con- straints, including species-typical tendencies, trolling and exploiting significant events. In genetic predispositions, and the alteration of the present volume, Etiology and Assessment of various behavioral thresholds brought about Behavior Problems,these general theoretical by domestication and selective breeding. assumptions and principles are applied toward Clearly, although extraordinarily flexible and better understanding how adjustment prob- adaptive, dog behavior expresses itself in rela- lems develop in dogs. Certainly, whether adap- tively uniform and consistent ways. The causes tive or maladaptive, a dog’s behavioral adjust- of this behavioral regularity are found in both ment is ever under the dynamic influence of phylogenic and ontogenic influences that con- experience and learning operating within the tinuously act on dogs from their conception to context of biological and environmental con- their senescence and death. As the result of straints. Both learning and biology contribute selection pressures exerted upon the canine to a dog’s adaptive success or failure. genotype during its evolution or phylogenesis, Borrowing from Tinbergen’s terminology, the dog’s behavior has been biologically the canine Merkweltor perceptual world sig- shaped and prepared to express itself in a lim- nificantly differs from the human Merkwelt. ited set of ways. During the dog’s develop- As species, we inhabit very different sensory, ment or ontogeny, the environment continues cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social to exert selection pressures on the behavioral worlds but still succeed generation upon gen- phenotype through learning. The dog’s behav- eration to reach across millions of years of evo- ioral phenotype is the composite of evolution- lutionary divergence to form a profoundly ary mutation and selection (organized in the enriching and affectionate bond with one canine genotype) together with selected refine- another and to share the same living space ments and modifications as the result of inter- cooperatively. Although domestication has action with the environment and learning. In helped to bridge the gap, much phylogenic other words, the dog’s behavior is conjointly room remains for mutual misunderstanding influenced by both phylogenic and environ- and interactive tension. Further, as people and mental determinants via experience and learn- dogs live together in closer social arrangements ing. In addition, the behavioral phenotype at and progressively artificial environments, the each stage of ontogeny affects subsequent likelihood of behavioral tensions and problems development (prepared and regulated by genes is simply bound to increase. In fact, it is noth- operating on a physiological level) and under- ing short of a biological wonder that we get goes further modification by maturational along together as well as we do. However, not demands and environmental pressures. Finally, only are we apt to misunderstand one another, it was shown in Volume 1 that successful dogs are also often exposed to neglect, abuse, adaptation and learning depend on the pres- detrimental rearing practices, and various ence of an orderly environment composed of other adversarial and environmental pressures, highly predictable and controllable events. many of which appear capable of disrupting or Without the presence of a stable and orderly disorganizing a dog’s ability to learn and adjust environment, neither natural selection nor effectively. Naturally, problems are bound to xi xii PREFACE occur and do. Every year, thousands of dis- of behavior problems. Without accurately traught dog owners haul their wayward dogs identifying and properly assessing the various off to obedience classes or to private animal contributory causes underlying a behavioral behavior consultants, seeking advice or train- adjustment problem, it is not possible to ing for some puppy or dog behavior problem. intervene with a truly rational plan of behav- Estimates vary, but the vast majority of dogs ior modification and therapy. Despite signifi- appear to exhibit at least one undesirable habit cant advances in our understanding and treat- that its owner would like to change. Most of ment of dog behavior problems over the past these behavior problems are an outcome of 20 years, much yet remains to be accom- inadequate training or socialization and are plished in this and related fields of profes- usually responsive to remedial training and sional activity. Unfortunately, many theories brief counseling. Besides social sources of cau- and assumptions in wide public circulation sation, behavior problems may also develop as are either dated or unproven. For example, the result of chronic mismanagement or neg- perusing any random selection of dog-care lect of the dog’s basic biological needs and and dog-training books that address dog requirements for stimulation. Some problems, behavior problems reveals a perplexing and however, are the result of a more complex eti- sometimes irritating array of opinions, beliefs, ology, involving cognitive deficiencies, distress- and methods about how such problems ought ing emotional activity, and pervasive behav- to be modified or managed. These various ioral disorganization. Volume 2 is especially texts often espouse conflicting or contradic- concerned with exploring the collective epige- tory information, some encouraging very netic causes underlying the development of intrusive or forceful techniques as the neces- these more disruptive adjustment problems. sary prerequisites for controlling undesirable Many behavior problems appear to be dog behavior, while others admonish the strongly influenced by classical and instrumen- reader to never raise an impatient voice to the tal learning, especially learning strained or dis- errant dog. Much of the contemporary popu- turbed under the adverse influences of stressful lar literature is confounded by moralistic and anxiety and frustration. Disruptive anxiety and ideological agendas that deflect from an hon- frustration result when a dog’s social and phys- est and rational search for an objective under- ical environment lacks sufficient order and sta- standing of dog behavior and its effective con- bility in terms of overall predictability and trol and management. Unfortunately, the controllability. Social interaction consisting of acceptance of a training system is often based unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive or more on an author’s personal charisma and attractive exchanges between the owner and fame than on its actual efficacy or scientific the dog is prone to disrupt effective lines of merit. The overall result of these influences communication, promote stress and distrust, has been the accumulation of widely diver- and result in behavioral maladjustment. Other gent and sometimes baffling opinions, theo- problems appear to stem from trauma and ries, and practices performed in the name of deprivation occurring early in life, resulting in companion-dog training and counseling. phenotypic disturbances that persist and dis- An important focus of Volume 2 is to col- rupt the subsequent course of the dog’s behav- lect and evaluate the relevant applied and sci- ioral development. Finally, some severe behav- entific literature, with the goal of clarifying ior problems are under the exacerbating what is known about the etiology of dog influence of species-typical tendencies and behavior problems and to highlight what yet appetites, genetically altered behavioral thresh- remains to be done by way of additional olds, and various physiological and neurobio- analysis and behavioral research. Although the logical sources of causation that may require applied literature is somewhat more consistent adjunctive veterinary differential diagnosis and and uniform, it also suffers from many of the treatment. same maladies found in the popular literature. A goal of Volume 2 is to examine these In spite of an ostensible dedication to the sci- and other causes underlying the development entific method, many common diagnostic