H SECURE WORLD FOUNDATION A N HANDBOOK FOR D B SECURE WORLD FOUNDATION NEW ACTORS IN SPACE O O Space is rapidly changing. Every year, more numerous K HANDBOOK FOR and more diverse actors embark on increasingly novel, F innovative, and disruptive ventures in outer space. They are O joining the more than 70 states, commercial companies, R NEW ACTORS and international organizations currently operating over N 1,500 satellites in Earth orbit. E W The prospects are bright; accessing and exploring outer IN SPACE A space now require less capital investment, less time, and C fewer people than ever before. However, this rapid pace of T growth and change exists in a complex landscape of legal, O regulatory, political, technical, and administrative issues. R S New actors in space face a steep learning curve and will stress existing institutions and governance frameworks. I N Additionally, the inherently difficult and fragile nature of S the space environment means that accidents or mistakes in P space might affect us all. A C E In considering the great possibilities for growth and innovation, and in light of the myriad and interlinked challenges new space activities will confront, the Secure World Foundation offers this Handbook for New Actors in Space in the hopes that it will assist all aspiring new entrants—whether governmental or non-governmental— in planning and conducting space activities in a safe and sustainable manner. 2017 EDITION 2 ISBN 978-0-692-45413-8 0 90000> 1 7 E d i t i o | 1 9 780692 454138 n 2 | Handbook for New Actors in Space Secure World Foundation Handbook for New Actors in Space Edited by Christopher D. Johnson Nothing contained in this book is to be considered as rendering legal advice for specific cases, and readers are responsible for obtaining such advice from their legal counsel. This book is intended for educational and informational purposes only. The Handbook for New Actors in Space by the Secure World Foundation is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. ISBN: 978-0-692-85141-8 S T N E T N O C TABLE OF CONTENTS ABOUT SECURE WORLD FOUNDATION.........................................................................vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................................................................vii FOREWORD — Michael K. Simpson, PhD.........................................................................viii HOW TO USE THIS BOOK..................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Signing of the Outer Space Treaty.........................................................................4 Figure 2 Growth in the Number of States Party to the Space Law Treaties......................7 Figure 3 OOSA International Registry Form.....................................................................13 Figure 4 ITU World Regions..............................................................................................18 Figure 5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum, Including Uses Along the Spectrum................19 Figure 6 Space Debris 1 cm and Larger in Orbit................................................................34 Figure 7 Protected Regions in Space................................................................................36 Figure 8 The UK Satellite Applications Catapult...............................................................67 Figure 9 Fishbone Diagram............................................................................................123 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 The Core Treaties on Space..................................................................................6 Table 2 Planetary Protection Categories........................................................................43 Table 3 National Registries of Space Objects.................................................................73 Table 4 Indemnification Regime of Some Spacefaring States........................................75 Table 5 Common Contract Types....................................................................................82 Table 6 Flight Safety Analyses......................................................................................105 Table 7 Examples of CA Screening Volumes.................................................................115 Table 8 International Orbital Debris Limitation Documents........................................125 Table 9 End-of-Life Disposal Actions.............................................................................129 | i CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION — Tanja Masson-Zwaan.........................................................................2 THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SPACE ACTIVITIES........................................3 Freedom and Responsibility.................................................................................................3 Freedom of Exploration and Use of Space..................................................................3 The Core Treaties.........................................................................................................6 Peaceful Purposes.......................................................................................................8 International State Responsibility................................................................................9 Registration of Space Objects............................................................................................10 UNGA Resolution 62/101..........................................................................................12 National Registration................................................................................................12 Suborbital Launches..................................................................................................16 International Frequency Management..............................................................................17 World Radiocommunication Conference..................................................................20 Space Frequency Coordination Group......................................................................20 Laser Communications..........................................................................................................20 Remote Sensing.................................................................................................................21 International Standards.....................................................................................................22 International Organization for Standardization.........................................................23 ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector........................................................23 Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems.......................................................24 International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems............................24 United Nations Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management...............................................25 International Export Control..............................................................................................25 International Liability.........................................................................................................27 Dispute Settlement............................................................................................................29 International Court of Justice.....................................................................................30 Arbitration and Mediation.........................................................................................30 Environmental Issues.........................................................................................................31 Protection of the Earth Environment.........................................................................31 Back-Contamination of Earth....................................................................................31 Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Space..................................................................32 Space Debris..............................................................................................................33 Advanced Issues................................................................................................................38 Boundary Between Airspace and Outer Space........................................................38 Space Traffic Management........................................................................................40 Status of Humans in Space........................................................................................41 Protecting Celestial Bodies........................................................................................42 ii | Handbook for New Actors in Space S T N E T N O C Space Resources........................................................................................................45 Relevant Organizations......................................................................................................47 International Intergovernmental Organizations........................................................47 Non-Governmental Organizations.............................................................................50 CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION — Mazlan Othman, PhD.......................................................................54 NATIONAL SPACE POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION......................................................55 Public Policy.......................................................................................................................55 Rationales, Objectives, and Principles.......................................................................56 Case Study: United Arab Emirates Mars Mission......................................................57 Government Roles and Responsibilities.....................................................................58 Role of Space in Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy....................................60 International Cooperation.........................................................................................61 Export Control and Technology Transfer...................................................................63 Government Relationship with the Private Sector....................................................64 Case Study: The United Kingdom Satellite Applications Catapult............................67 Property Rights..........................................................................................................69 Public Administration and National Oversight...................................................................70 National Regulators...................................................................................................70 Licensing..........................................................................................................71 National Registries of Space Objects..........................................................................71 Insurance Requirements............................................................................................74 Waivers....................................................................................................................74 National Frequency Administration and Broadcasting...............................................74 Administration of Export Controls and Technology-Transfer......................................76 Case Study: Export Controls in the United States.......................................................77 Congestion in Space...................................................................................................78 Case Study: Space Debris Policy and Administration in the United States...................78 Government Contracting...........................................................................................81 Dispute Settlement Clauses......................................................................................81 Recourse to Domestic Courts....................................................................................83 In-Depth Analysis: Remote Sensing Policy and Administration.........................................83 Remote Sensing Policy...............................................................................................83 Oversight of Non-Government Activities..................................................................85 Data Policies..............................................................................................................86 Broader Policy Context...............................................................................................87 | iii CHAPTER THREE: INTRODUCTION — Greg Wyler......................................................................................88 RESPONSIBLE OPERATIONS IN SPACE...........................................................................89 Pre-Launch....................................................................................................................89 Licensing...............................................................................................................89 Licensing Requirements.............................................................................................90 Frequency Licensing..................................................................................................90 Remote Sensing Licenses...........................................................................................91 Launch and Re-Entry Licenses....................................................................................91 The Licensing Process: Getting a License...................................................................92 Launch Vehicle Selection...........................................................................................93 Integrating Multiple Payloads...................................................................................95 Launch Services Agreement.......................................................................................96 Insurance...........................................................................................................98 Pre-Launch Payload Testing.......................................................................................98 The Links Between Testing and Anomaly Mitigation................................................100 Launch Mission Assurance.......................................................................................101 Launch............................................................................................................................101 Terrestrial Environmental Safety Considerations...................................................102 Ground Safety Considerations.................................................................................103 Range Safety During Launch Operations................................................................104 Public Risk Criteria...................................................................................................106 Flight Termination System........................................................................................106 Flight Safety Plan.....................................................................................................106 Safety-Critical Preflight Operations.........................................................................107 On-Orbit Activities...........................................................................................................107 Satellite Orbital Determination and Tracking..........................................................108 Orbit Propagation....................................................................................................109 Two Techniques for Combining Observations into a State.....................................110 Conjunction Assessment Procedures and Standards................................................111 Operational Conjunction Assessment......................................................................112 Risk Assessment and Avoiding Collisions................................................................116 Space Weather.........................................................................................................118 Satellite Anomaly Recognition, Response, and Recovery.........................................119 Anomaly Recognition...............................................................................................120 Anomaly Response..................................................................................................120 Anomaly Recovery and Analysis.............................................................................122 Fishbone Diagrams..................................................................................................123 iv | Handbook for New Actors in Space S T N E T N O C End-of-Life..........................................................................................................124 Post-Mission Disposal..............................................................................................124 Launch Vehicle and Satellite Passivation.................................................................124 Geosynchronous Region Disposal............................................................................126 Passing Through LEO Disposal................................................................................127 Atmospheric Re-Entry and Risk Assessment...........................................................128 Re-Entry.............................................................................................................129 Re-Entry Threat Statistics.......................................................................................130 Calculating Re-Entry Risk.........................................................................................130 Design for Demise....................................................................................................131 Re-Entry Predictions................................................................................................131 Planning a Controlled Re-Entry...............................................................................132 INDEX......................................................................................................................134 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................140 | v ABOUT THE SECURE WORLD FOUNDATION The Secure World Foundation envisions the secure, sustainable, and peaceful uses of outer space contributing to global stability on Earth. We work with governments, industry, international organizations, and civil society to develop and promote ideas and actions for international collaborations that achieve the secure, sustainable, and peaceful uses of outer space. Cynda Collins Arsenault, Founder Michael K. Simpson, PhD, Executive Director Lisa Croy, Operations Director Victoria Samson, Washington Office Director Ian Christensen, Project Manager Christopher D. Johnson, Space Law Advisor Nicole Nir, Program and Communications Coordinator Brian Weeden, PhD, Technical Advisor Krystal Wilson, Project Manager Joshua Wolny, DC Administrative Assistant Advisory Committee Ambassador Ciro Arévalo Yepes Richard DalBello Peter Marquez Tanja Masson-Zwaan Mazlan Othman, PhD Xavier Pasco, PhD Rajeswari Rajagopalan, PhD Maj. Gen. Jay Santee (Ret.) www.swfound.org vi | Handbook for New Actors in Space