1. Chapter 1, Harris CRYSTAL SETS TO SIDEBAND A guide to building your own amateur radio station By Frank W. Harris, KØIYE 3850 Pinon Drive Boulder, Colorado 80303-3539 © Frank W. Harris 2004 , Rev 09 ********************************************************** Chapter 1 THE FASCINATION OF RADIO Radio produces action at immense distances with no physical connection that can be perceived by our senses. A modern way to demystify radio is to say that radio is simply a kind of light that our eyes cannot see. To those of us addicted to shortwave radio, it’s an adventurous realm that can be explored. When we listen to our radio receivers it is comparable to using the Hubble telescope to explore the heavens. Shortwave is fascinating because you can’t predict what you are going to hear. You might hear a radio broadcast from an exotic foreign capitol. You might pick up an SOS from a ship sinking in a storm or maybe weather reports from a radio amateur on Pitcairn Island. The next evening the same frequency band might be completely empty except for two hams on the other side of your own town discussing the Super Bowl. Or you might receive coded messages intended for some undercover spy lurking in our country. I’m not kidding. I routinely hear such coded messages consisting of groups of letters on the 10.1 and 28.1 MHz ham bands. The codes are usually sent in Morse code, but sometimes you will hear a voice reciting the letter groups. Sometimes the woman announcer finishes by saying, “Thank you for decoding this message!” Since hams are forbidden to use codes or modulation modes that are not easily decoded, these communications are at least illegal. Yes, it’s true that shortwave isn’t as vital to world activities as it once was, but if there’s any romance in your soul, shortwave is still entrancing and always will be. This book is about using amateur radio to recapture the adventure of early day radio and bring it into the present. It is also about learning electronics and radio technology. If you can get through this book, shortwave radio will still be fascinating, but no longer mysterious. Admiral Byrd at the South Pole I first became intrigued by shortwave when I read Admiral Byrd’s book on his last expedition to the Antarctic. Admiral Richard Byrd was in the business of launching expeditions to explore the Earth’s poles. These expeditions had no inherent commercial value except for book sales and sponsoring grants from companies hoping to gain visibility for their products. In order for Byrd to get those grants, the public had to be sufficiently interested in the expeditions to generate advertising value. With each polar expedition, finding new expedition goals that would be exciting to the public became increasingly difficult. Studying rocks, glaciers and penguins was scientifically important, but not particularly interesting to the public. By the 1940’s all the 2. Chapter 1, Harris neat stuff, like walking to the North and South Poles had been done decades before. On his last expedition to Antarctica, Byrd established a base on the Antarctic coast like all previous large expeditions. However, he succeeded in maintaining public interest by setting up a tiny second outpost on the polar icecap hundreds of miles south of the coast. Then he attempted to spend the Antarctic winter alone in his little under-snow cabin totally isolated from the world in the cold and dark. His one connection with his base camp at “Little America” and the outside world was Morse code radio contact. Other than producing some interesting weather reports, the outpost had little real value. However, it did attract attention. Who could help but be captivated by the ordeal of a man totally isolated, hundreds of miles from the nearest humans? It was like being marooned on the moon, utterly alone. Byrd’s messages were relayed from his big base back out to the rest of the world. As a boy I was fascinated by Byrd’s lonely vigil. I imagined what it would be like to be shut off from the world for months on end. I pictured Byrd bundled up in a fur parka huddled over his little table sending and receiving Morse code. His connection with the world was reduced to musical notes barely audible above the soft purring static of the polar night. The Morse tones came into his headphones and he wrote down their meaning, one letter at a time. The decoded messages appeared on his pad, one word at time. He fumbled with his pencil. “Was that a ‘C’ or a ‘K?’” he asked himself. He pushed his indecision aside and kept writing down the new letters. Fretting about one letter can destroy the whole sentence. A radiotelegraph operator learns to focus on the stream of characters and not dwell on each one. After a few weeks in his frozen prison, Byrd began to suffer from headaches, nausea, weakness, and confusion. His Morse code became harder and harder to read and his team back at Little America became greatly concerned. Unknown to Byrd, his cabin heater was leaking carbon monoxide and was slowly killing him. Finally, when Byrd’s condition became desperate, his crew drove hundreds of miles over the ice cap through winter darkness, howling wind, and below zero temperatures to rescue him. Growing up at the end of the Morse code age As late as 1960, Morse code was still commonly used commercially and by the military. Since Morse code had an exotic sound, news broadcasts were routinely introduced by snippets of code. When the word “NEWS” is spelled out in Morse and repeated rapidly, it makes a pleasant, rhythmic, musical phrase that blends in well with Hollywood-style introduction music. The public often assumed that messages from the other side of the world arrived by Morse code, although in reality its importance had been fading since the 1930s. The Morse code used for radio communications in the English language The “dashes” are three times longer in duration than the “dots.” A ._ G _ _ . M _ _ S . . . Y _ . _ _ B _ . . . H . . . . N _ . T _ Z _ _ . . C _ . _ . I . . O _ _ _ U . . _ D _ . . J . _ _ _ P . _ _ . V . . . _ 3. Chapter 1, Harris E . K _ . _ Q _ _ . _ W . _ _ F . . _ . L . _ . . R . _ . X _ .. _ Numbers and Commonly Used Punctuation 1 . _ _ _ _ 3 . . . _ _ 5 . . . . . 7 _ _ . . . 9 _ _ _ _ . 2 . . _ _ _ 4 . . . . _ 6 _ . . . . 8 _ _ _ . . Ø(zero) _ _ _ _ _ (, comma) _ _ . . _ _ (. Period) . _ . _ . _ (/ slash) _ . . _ . When I was a kid, my closest friend was Garth McKenzie. My introduction to ham radio was through his dad, Alexander (“Mac”) McKenzie. Mac’s call letters were W2SOU and his radio station was crammed into an alcove off the dining room. In the 1940s, quality radio equipment was packaged behind somber black aluminum panels 22 inches wide, eight inches high and mounted in tall racks. The controls were enigmatic black knobs with strange labels like “grid drive” and “loading.” The displays were usually just meters with equally arcane titles such as “S-meter” and “plate current.” The McKenzies had a cabin up in New Hampshire. Mrs. McKenzie and the kids spent most of every summer up at the cabin. Mac went up to New Hampshire on weekends when he could, but most of the time he stayed in touch with his family by radio. A friend of Garth’s dad, Mr. Henny, lived near the McKenzies’ cabin. He was also a ham, so on Saturday mornings Mac had a regular schedule to talk with Mr. Henny using Morse code, or “CW” (continuous wave) as it is still known. I was intrigued when I heard about these scheduled contacts and wanted to see Mac operate his station. I arrived at the McKenzie house at the appointed time. Sure enough, right on schedule, Morse code appeared out of the static. Mac wrote down the letters on a pad. I watched over his shoulder and stared at his pencil tip. It was mesmerizing to hear the code and watch the words and sentences appear on the paper. Unfortunately I couldn’t understand even one letter of what Mac was sending, so I quickly tired of the one-sided conversation. In spite of that, Morse code had a mysterious, other-world quality and I was hooked. Among the other equipment in Mac’s radio shack was a Loran set. Loran was a long- range direction finder, the 1950 version of today’s global positioning system (GPS). Mac demonstrated for me how to find latitude and longitude using a tiny green oscilloscope screen. The little round screen was only 2 or 3 inches wide and peered out from another one of those black, 22-inch wide black rack panels. Mac had it set up just for fun, of course. The Loran was designed for use on a ship and the McKenzie’s house certainly wasn’t going anywhere. The joy of building it yourself It was hard for an eight year old like me to imagine getting a ham license and affording all that massive equipment. The Loran was even more alien. What turned me on was Mac McKenzie’s television set. In the late 1940s, television stations were on the air, but no one I knew other than Mac actually owned a TV. That wasn’t surprising. TVs cost as much as an automobile. Talk about a luxury! Undaunted, Mac built his own television from old radio parts 4. Chapter 1, Harris and an army surplus, five-inch diameter, green oscilloscope tube. A real, white phosphor, (black and white) TV cathode ray tube cost a fortune back then, so Mac couldn’t even afford the picture tube. And because the TV tubes were designed for magnetic deflection and the oscilloscope tube used electric deflection, Mac couldn’t just copy the deflection circuits from an RCA TV. Instead, he had to design his own custom picture tube drive and sweep circuits. Perfecting a new circuit meant that it had to be built and tested one small piece at a time. Since Mac had little idea how large the final circuit would be, he couldn’t assemble his TV in a cabinet right away. Instead, he built his TV as a giant “breadboard” circuit with all the glowing tubes, wires, resistors, transformers, capacitors and components all laid out in a huge spider-web matrix. A TV is extremely complicated and a large breadboard was needed. Fortunately Barbara McKenzie was a tolerant woman. For about a year the dining room table, including the extension leaves, was completely covered with about four by eight feet of television circuitry. Toward the end of the year the TV began to work. We kids used to come home from school and sit on the floor and watch programs on the tiny five-inch picture tube dangling off the end of the table. The pictures were in living “black and green.” We watched “Zoo parade” with Marlin Perkins and our favorite program, “Flash Gordon.” TV was different back then. Flash Gordon was 15 minute film clips but most other programs were live. Even the commercials were live. I remember laughing silly over a commercial for a vacuum cleaner in which the fellow plugged the hose into the wrong end of the cleaner. The machine blew the dust all over the room while the announcer tried to pretend it was working perfectly. Eventually Mac installed his TV in an old record player cabinet. To make the picture larger, he put a big magnifying lens in front of the screen. When he watched TV, he propped up the hinged lid of the cabinet at a 45 degree angle and watched the enlarged picture in a mirror mounted on the underside of the lid. Mac showed me that, with patience, you can build almost anything. And, in the long run, it’s usually much more rewarding to build a possession rather than to buy it. He also taught me that projects must be built and tested one tiny part at a time. If you build it all at once without testing the parts as you go, it might fit in the cabinet, but it 5. Chapter 1, Harris almost certainly won’t work. There are very few short cuts. The complete radio amateur This book is about building ham radio equipment. To be sure, it’s much, much easier to buy the equipment. In fact, commercial ham equipment today is so cheap, that buying it is far less expensive than buying the parts one at a time. The good news is that equipment you build yourself will have a value and meaning for you that can’t be purchased. Along the way you’ll learn much more about electricity, then you ever will learn reading the operator’s manual of commercial equipment. Most of us will never be an Edison, Marconi or Armstrong, but we can learn what they knew and we can share some of the thrill they felt when their inventions began to work. When your homemade station is finally on the air, you’ll have all the same fun the other hams are having. But unlike the rest of the herd, you will be the “The Complete Radio Amateur.” A brief history of radio communication Radio is based on phenomena that have been known since ancient times, namely static electricity and magnets. These phenomena also produce action at a distance with no visible connection, but only over extremely short distances. In 600 BC the philosopher Thales of Melitus described how, after rubbing amber with cloth, the amber could attract bits of straw. Sometime back in antiquity it was observed that natural magnetite ore (iron oxide, Fe O ) could 3 4 attract other bits of magnetite rock. Knowledge of natural magnets eventually led to the discovery of the magnetic compass. Compasses were a Godsend to sailors lost in fog and must have seemed astounding to those who first used them. The compass was in wide use in Europe by 1000 AD. Magnets and electricity appeared to be separate phenomena until 1820 when Hans Christian Oersted noticed that an electric current in a wire generates a magnetic field that can move a compass needle. Faraday and Henry studied and quantified the generation of magnetic fields by coils of wire that we now call called “inductors.” In one of the all-time greatest triumphs of theoretical physics, James Maxwell published four equations in 1884 that summarized the connection between magnetism and electrical force. Maxwell’s equations not only quantified and connected what was already known about these forces, they also predicted that magnetism and electric force could be combined to form a free-flying radiation. From the equations it appeared that these radio waves should be able to propagate great distances through space, much like light and heat. What exactly is a radio wave? An electric field and a magnetic field both can temporarily store energy in free space. For example, a refrigerator magnet generates a magnetic field in the space surrounding it. This magnetic energy hovers in “cloud” or “field” surrounding the metal magnet. Similarly, electric field energy is present in the space between the terminals of an ordinary flashlight battery. Suppose that magnets and charged batteries could be sent into outer space and turned loose to float in the void. These devices would still generate their magnetic and electric fields in the vacuum surrounding the devices. However, if the devices could suddenly disappear, the magnetic and electric fields would not be maintained. The fields would quickly collapse and the energy would dissipate in all directions at the speed of light. 6. Chapter 1, Harris A battery or a magnet can be compared to a glass of water on a table. The glass holds the water in place and the water will rest there indefinitely. But if the glass were to suddenly break or vanish, the water would flood out in all directions. If either a magnet or battery floating in free space could be made to suddenly disappear, it would generate a radio wave that would propagate outward in all directions making a spherical shell of expanding waves. It turns out that collapsing magnetic field energy in free space is converted into electric field energy. Then, a moment later, the electric field energy similarly collapses back into a magnetic field. One way to look at it is that the collapsing magnetic field forces the storage of that same energy as an electric field in neighboring space. In other words, a collapsing field becomes a “device” that establishes the opposite kind of field in adjacent space. The end result is a wavefront of energy propagating across the void. As it travels, the energy oscillates back and forth between electric and magnet field forms. In the vacuum of space there is no dissipation of the original energy except that the energy becomes more dilute as it spreads out in all directions like ripples on a pond. The water analogy has other similarities with radio waves. The crests of the ripples on the pond represent the storage of mechanical energy as potential energy. The potential energy is proportional to the height of the ripples or waves. The higher the wave, the more energy it stores. As the water falls back down, the energy from this descent is converted into kinetic energy, that is, the outward velocity Then as the wave spreads outward, the water stacks up to form another wave crest, restoring the energy to its potential energy form. In 1887 Heinrich Hertz, a professor at the University of Bonn, Germany, managed to demonstrate in his laboratory that Maxwell’s radio waves actually existed. From then on other experimenters built “Hertzian apparatus” and tried to use it for communication or remote control. Experiments much like Hertz performed are described in Chapter 4. Using rocks, copper wire and other materials available in 1880, you can build a short-range communicator to send and receive radio waves from one end of your house to the other. You can even demonstrate “standing waves” on an antenna. How inventions happen Big inventions usually begin with a novel observation. Faraday first invented the AC transformer with independent coils. An alternating current (AC) introduced into one coil on the transformer causes a second current to appear in a tightly coupled similar coil a fraction of an inch away. Today we still routinely use transformers to convert the ratio of current to voltage. For example, inside your flashlight battery charger, there is a transformer that converts a tiny current at 120 volts AC into a large current at 1.5 volts AC. If you used 120 volts directly on your battery, it could be disastrous. Chargers would be quite impractical (or at least horribly inefficient) without transformers. We shall discuss these principles in detail in later chapters. Getting back to Faraday, he must have marveled when he thought about the implications of electrical energy fed into one coil appearing in a neighboring coil. That is, the energy was “transmitted” across a gap. Yes, the gap may have only been a fraction of an inch, but certainly the thought must have occurred to him, “how far can it transmit?” In a letter in 1832 he proposed to a friend that electric energy could probably travel through space as waves. Unfortunately, he had no evidence, experiments or equations to support this idea. 7. Chapter 1, Harris Many early radio communication experiments began when the first high frequency transformers were made. Unlike low frequency, like our 60 Hz line current, high frequency transformers of 500 KHz and above readily couple energy several inches through air. High frequency currents couple from one coil to another and begin to resemble radio. It’s surprisingly easy to build a high frequency transformer and demonstrate a crude, short range “radio communications.” All that’s needed is a powerful battery, a large coil of wire and a second coil wrapped around the first coil. The second coil is arranged so that the two ends of the wire are fixed a tiny distance apart, perhaps a sixteenth of an inch. The two ends of the first coil of wire are scratched transiently across the terminals of the battery. Huge currents flow in the first coil and establish a magnetic field around that coil. Since the same space is shared with the second coil, the magnetic field induces voltage across the second coil and a spark appears in the gap on the second coil. In other words, electric current was converted into magnetic energy, jumped across a short distance and then was reconverted back into electrical current. Now if the two coils are moved far apart, there will continue to be energy transmitted from one coil to other. However, with such a crude detection system, a spark probably won't be visible and a much more sensitive detector would be needed to prove that energy was actually transmitted. Inventions appear when all the conditions are in place New technologies appear whenever the necessary knowledge and affordable raw materials become available. For example, cell phones could have been built 50 years ago, but they would have been the size of suitcases, served few people and would have only been available to the most wealthy. Even today it’s possible to introduce useful technology too early to be profitable. The Iridium phone system is a world-wide direct satellite telephone system. Unfortunately, the Iridium “phone” is big and clumsy and the phone calls cost a fortune. Sure, you can reliably talk to a guy on dog sled at the North Pole, but there aren’t many people who actually need to do that. The result of this business miscalculation is that this year (2003) a network of satellites costing billions of dollars might be deliberately crashed into the Pacific Ocean. Radio was invented between the years 1884 and 1910 in a time when all the pieces to make it practical were in place. Many inventors had the chance to pursue radio communication, but many turned it down. To be more than a parlor trick, radio had to have a commercial reason for its development. The concept of broadcasting voices, music and even motion pictures to the masses seems obvious to us now. But in 1900 it wasn’t obvious that radio could be more than an unreliable way to send telegrams. Hardly anyone back then imagined that speech and music might be transmitted. Nicola Tesla, the archetype “mad scientist” Tesla was born in Serbia in 1856. In college he studied what was then the exotic field of electrical engineering. He once proposed to his professor that an AC generator could be built that would be simpler than DC power generation and which would have several other advantages. The professor ridiculed his idea mercilessly. Today we call these “alternators.” We use giant alternators to generate electricity in all large power plants. And we use little ones in our cars to recharge our batteries. When Tesla’s father died, Nicola was forced to leave school and go to work. Like most electrical engineers of his time, he worked on DC motors and DC generators. At that time the DC motor was beginning to replace the belt and pulley as a means of 8. Chapter 1, Harris powering industrial machinery such as looms and mine hoists. Tesla migrated to America and arrived almost penniless. He even worked briefly as a ditch digger in order to eat. He applied for work with Edison who tested his skills by assigning him to fix a DC generator on a ship. Tesla rebuilt the generator right on the ship and made it produce more electricity than its original design. Tesla worked briefly for Edison, then he struck out on his own. He built his own small laboratory and worked on gadgets of all sorts. He soon acquired a reputation as a “science wizard.” He enjoyed putting on “magic shows” with giant sparks flying off his fingers and whirling fluorescent light bulbs. His reputation as a science magician encouraged him to put show business into everything he did. After reading his biography, it appears to me that his ability to gain awe and respect through showmanship eventually ruined his career. As money ran short, Tesla got a job with Westinghouse and developed the alternator into a practical power generator. Tesla’s greatest contribution to the world was the power generation and distribution system he demonstrated at a brand new power plant at Niagara Falls. He invented three phase AC alternators, transformers and high-tension power lines that are still in use world-wide. After Tesla left Westinghouse, he set up his own laboratory in New York City to experiment with uses for radio frequency current. The missed opportunity Ship owners have probably always wished they could communicate with ships at sea. Until the late 19th century the fate of a ship might be totally unknown for months or even a year. When the ship finally sailed into homeport, the owner might suddenly learn that he was extremely wealthy. Or the ship might never return and the owner would have lost a huge investment. Being able to communicate a few hundred miles or even a dozen miles out to sea might be life saving in an emergency. By 1900 scientists knew that “wireless telegraph” could communicate across the English channel using giant transmitters and antennas, but no one had been able to receive a message from much farther than that. At the time J.P. Morgan was a financier and banker and one of the richest men in the world. Among his empire of enterprises he owned a fleet of ships. If a practical long-range telegraph could be developed, he wanted it on his ships. Marconi already had a good start on a ship-to-shore radio and had already demonstrated short-range ship-to-shore communication, both in England and America. In spite of that lead, Morgan approached Tesla who certainly had the knowledge and experience to develop practical radio communications. J.P. Morgan gave Tesla a big financial grant to do this work. Tesla set up a laboratory in Colorado Springs to invent long distance radio, or so he allowed Morgan to believe. Unfortunately, merely talking to ships was boring to Tesla. Tesla preferred to develop what he called “The World Telegraphy Center.” Tesla wanted to set up a communications center that could not only talk to ships, but also to everyone else on earth. His vision of what he was trying to build sounds to modern ears like a one-way Internet or perhaps CNN. He doesn’t seem to have thought about the difficulties of handling all the messages in the world through one single gigantic low frequency transmitter. Back then, there were no Internet servers to organize all that message traffic into digital streams of information. Considering the operating frequency of his transmitters, his data rate would have been limited to a few kilobytes per second rather than the terabytes handled today by a single node on the Internet. 9. Chapter 1, Harris Tesla’s radio transmitters were certainly adequate for transoceanic communication. But instead of also developing a sensitive radio receiver, Tesla spent nearly all his effort on developing huge low frequency radio transmitters. His transmitters were so powerful, he experimented with transmitting electric power as well as information. Tesla proposed using tuned coils to energize fluorescent light bulbs miles away from his transmitter. Yes, his idea worked, but only at an extremely low efficiency. Sure, the lights glowed just as he said, but damp soil, cows, people, barbed wire fences and every other electric conductor within range would be heated with wasted energy, just like a microwave oven. Tesla built a gigantic “Tesla coil” that produced radio frequency sparks 60 feet long. Always the showman, Tesla liked to be photographed sitting among the sparks and fire, while calmly reading a book. Actually, he used double exposures to create the illusion of sitting among the sparks. Tesla’s machine was so huge and had such unique capability that the U.S. Air Force built a copy of it 80 years later for research. With all this dramatic futuristic activity, Tesla never got around to building the dinky ship-to-shore radio that Morgan was paying him to develop. When he gave Morgan a progress report, Tesla tried to sell Morgan on his futuristic schemes. Morgan was furious at him for not sticking to the assignment and had little interest in any of Tesla’s ideas. Morgan did however force Tesla to assign him the ownership of any useful patents that might arise out of the work. Morgan was not known for generosity. After Morgan gave Tesla a tongue lashing, he gave him a second chance. But instead of getting serious about ship-to-shore communication, Tesla blew the money on building his “World Telegraphy Center” out at Wardenclyff, Long Island, New York. It was an imposing building with a huge tower housing the Tesla coil transmitter. The communications center came to nothing and Morgan stopped the funds. Tesla lived at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City and became a sort of self-absorbed lounge lizard. He dressed in Tuxedos and top hat and mooched off his friends. In the following decades Tesla dabbled in inventing and came up with several interesting devices that were almost good enough to become standard technology. For example, he designed a “bladeless turbine” heat engine, on the order of a steam engine or the internal combustion engine. There are few successful heat engine designs that are fundamentally different, so inventing a new one was an intellectual triumph. Unfortunately, Tesla’s heat engine was not as efficient as other methods and, so far, there have been no good uses for it. He also developed a speedometer gauge that was excellent and was used in several luxury cars. Converting the speed of a rotating shaft into a smooth, linear needle movement is much harder than it looks. However, Tesla’s method was more expensive than the meter design that eventually became universally used for that purpose. Tesla ended up as a lonely old man feeding pigeons in a third rate hotel in New York. After he died in 1943, it turned out that he had paid his rent for several months by giving the hotel manager a “death ray” to hold as collateral. Tesla told the manager the death ray was worth $10,000. The ray gun was actually a Wheatstone bridge, a sensitive resistance-measuring device commonly found in electrical labs. Marconi gets the job done 10. Chapter 1, Harris Guglielmo Marconi was born into a prosperous family in Bologna, Italy on April 25, 1874. He was educated in Bologna then later in Florence. He studied physics at Leghorn College. He was fascinated by Hertz’s discovery of radio waves and he became interested in wireless telegraphy in 1890. Starting in 1894, Marconi worked at home building prototypes in his basement. Today most of us think of a radio receiver as a kind of amplified stethoscope that lets us listen in on the hidden world of the radio spectrum. In Marconi’s time the main precedent for radio was telegraphy. This concept of one telegraph operator banging out telegrams to another operator using Morse code influenced Marconi’s vision of what he was trying to build. In conventional telegraphy the signal over the wire triggered a “sounder” which was a kind of electro-magnetic relay. The sounder made clickity-clack noises that the receiving operator interpreted as dots and dashes. Similarly, Marconi’s first radio transmission to another room in the house rang a bell when the signal was detected. There were no headphones that a person listened to. Most early experimenters built radios that resembled radio control systems rather than listening devices. As the technology developed, the radio operator gradually became a vital part of the system. The operator’s skill and trained ears became responsible for most of the range and practicality of the system. A trained operator can hear Morse code signals that are no stronger than the atmospheric static. Unlike a simple bell system, an operator can copy one Morse code signal while ignoring another. It took a hundred years for computerized digital signal processing to exceed the ability of a trained radio operator and return to Marconi’s vision of a robotic receiver. Radio detectors – An early challenge The most popular early radio detector, the “coherer,” was invented by the English physicist Lodge. Coherer’s were first used with long distance wire telegraph lines. They greatly extended the practical range of a telegraph wire and it was natural that they would be applied to the earliest radio experiments. A coherer was a small glass vial containing loose powdered carbon or iron filings. This powder contacted two electrodes in the vial. When a small voltage appeared across the powder, it would break down the contact resistance between the powder granules and cause the resistance of the coherer to suddenly drop. The drop in resistance was used to cause current to flow through the sounder relay. Coherers were often built onto the frame of a sounder so that the vibration of the sounder would keep the powder loose, thereby continually resetting the coherer to its original state. The set - reset action of a coherer resembles a modern silicon controlled rectifier. A small input current causes a much bigger current to flow. Unfortunately, like a silicon-controlled rectifier, the current through the coherer doesn’t shut off by itself when the input is turned off. Because coherers turned on and off at rates well below 20 cycles per second, the output from a coherer wasn't an audio signal that someone could listen to directly. At first Marconi’s receiver sat on the table next to the transmitter. Then he was able to transmit across the room and then to other rooms in the house. As his range increased, he moved his operation into an unused granary behind his parents’ house where he could string up antennas. His next triumph was a transmission from the granary to the end of the garden, 100