Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Tatarstan Yanarysh-Revival Foundation Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan Sh. Mardzhani Institute of History A. Khalikov Institute of Archaeology Great Bolgar Project Research Advisor Rafael Khakimov, Doctor Habil, Member of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan Science Editor Ayrat Sitdikov, Doctor Habil Publishing editors Vyacheslav Baranov, Ph.D Rafael Valeev, Doctor Habil Iskander Izmailov, Ph.D Radik Salikhov, Doctor Habil, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan Marina Poluboyarinova, Ph.D Rafind Sharifullin CONTENTS I. Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 II. Bolgar Town in the Medieval World: People, Region, Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1. Sitdikov A.G., Izmailov I.L. Bolgar Town in Culture and History ............................................12 2. Kalutskov V.N., Shulgin P.M. Natural Landscape of Bolgar Settlement .......................................26 3. Starostin P.N. Ancient History of the Volga-Kama Region ................................................40 4. Fakhrutdinov R.G. Bolgar in 10th – 11th centuries ........................................................46 5. Izmailov I.L. Bolgar in the Golden Horde period (second half of 13th – first half of 15th centuries) .......55 6. Khlebnikova T.A. Historical Topography of Bolgar Town ..................................................64 7. Abdullin K.M. Bolgar Town on Maps and Plans of 18th-19th centuries ....................................74 III. Life of the Medieval Town: Trade, Production and Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 1. Kirpichnikov A.N. History of Formation and Development of Great Volga Trade Route .....................82 2. Valeev R.M. International Trade Relations of Volga Bolgaria in 10th-14th centuries ......................90 3. Poluboyarinova M.D. Bolgar Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 4. Fedorov-Davydov G.A. Money and Currency ..............................................................114 5. Semykin Y.A. Iron Metallurgy and Metalworking ........................................................124 5a. Savchenkova L.L. Forging Products .....................................................................128 6. Polyakova G.F. Non-Ferrous and Precious Metal Articles .................................................132 7. Khlebnikova T.A. Unglazed Ceramics ....................................................................138 7a. Vasilieva I.N. Ceramic Kilns ............................................................................156 8. Poluboyarinova M.D. Glassware ...........................................................................160 9. Khlebnikova T.A. Tanning ...............................................................................168 10. Zakirova I.A. Bone Carving .............................................................................172 11. Krasnov Y.A. Agriculture ...............................................................................178 12. Petrenko A.G. Cattle Farming ...........................................................................192 IV. Bolgar Town: Fortifications, Architecture and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 1. Aidarov S.S. Town Planning Culture and Monumental Architecture ......................................198 2. Krasnov Y.A. Defensive Constructions ...................................................................218 3. Baranov V.S. Urban Amenities ...........................................................................228 4. Baranov V.S. Development of Urban Culture ............................................................234 5. Sharifullin R.F. Bathhouses ...............................................................................238 6. Aksenova N.D., Kaveev M.M. , Baranov V.S. Mausoleums .....................................................248 7. Belyaev L.A. The Small Town ............................................................................258 8. Noskova L.M. Architectural Ceramics ....................................................................266 V. Urban Culture of the Volga Region: Spirituality, Writing and Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 1. Izmailov I.L. Islam in Volga Bolgaria ....................................................................270 2. Izmailov I.L. Islam in the Ulus of Jochi ..................................................................276 3. Yablonskiy L.T. Medieval Bolgar Population .............................................................290 4. Khakimzyanov F.S., Izmailov I.L. Language and Writing in Bolgar Town ....................................300 5. Mukhametshin D.G., Khakimzyanov F.S. Inscriptions on Metal Articles ......................................312 6. Mukhametshin D.G., Khakimzyanov F.S. Bolgar Epigraphic Monuments .....................................316 7. Davletshin G.M. Spiritual Culture of Bolgar Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 8. Valeeva D.K. Art of Bolgar Town ........................................................................330 VI. Historical and Cultural Heritage of Bolgar: Research, Restoration and Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 1. Khlebnikova T.A. Archaeological Research of Bolgar Settlement in 1864-1980 ...........................338 2. Sharifullin R.F. Archaeological Research of Bolgar Settlement in 1980-2010 .............................348 3. Sitdikov A.G., Khairutdinov R.R., Makhmutov R.Z. Establishment of Bolgar Reserve ............................352 4. Zabirova F.M. Bolgar Settlement as Part of Regional Historical and Cultural Landscape .................360 5. Valeev R.M. Bolgar. A World Heritage Site ..............................................................374 6. Salikhov R.R., Sitdikov A.G. Bolgar Town: Cultural and Spiritual Renaissance ..............................380 7. Khisamova D.D. Great Bolgar in Fine Arts of Tatarstan ..................................................386 VII. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Fakhretdinov R.G. Imperishable Memory of the Past .....................................................394 Rustam Minnikhanov President of the Republic of Tatarstan Dear readers! The book “Great Bolgar” compiled by the Republican Foundation for Revival of Historic and Cultural Monuments of the Tatarstan Republic and the Shigabuddin Marjani Institute of History under the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences presents to wide audience the centuries of history and unique archaeological and architectural heritage of Volga Bolgaria and the Golden Horde. This sacred land is inseparably associated with the formation of national traditions, spirituality and unique culture of the Tatar people. It was here where in 922 our ancestors adopted Islam, which largely determined the further development of Tatar civilization. Bolgar was considered one of the largest centres of business and education, where representatives of various peoples and religions successfully engaged in mutually advantageous trade, pursued crafts and erected magnificent buildings, astonishing foreigners with their spectacular achievements. The creative spirit of our ancestors has remained to the present day. The Tatarstan Republic consistently achieves perspective objectives of socioeconomic and cultural development. Millennial Kazan – a worthy successor to Great Bolgar – is rapidly changing in appearance, becoming a modern megalopolis without sacrificing its unique originality. Preservation of historical and cultural heritage is one of the main priorities of national policy of the Tatarstan Republic. The revival of ancient Bolgar, the island city of Sviyazhsk, the historical center of Kazan and other important cultural and historical sites is a bright example of effective public-private partnership, arousing a significant interest in Russia and abroad. Of great importance in this regard is the support granted by the leadership of the Russian Federation, and personally by President of Russia Vladimir Putin. Tatarstan annually hosts major events of Russian and international importance, a special place among which belongs to “Izge-bolgar-zhyeny”. Thousands of guests from Russia and worldwide come to visit dateless antiquities, revived mosques and monuments of Bolgar. I hope that this book becomes a wonderful landmark of the great city, consistently cherishing the memory of ancient history of the multicultural Russian country. Mintimer Shaimiev State counsellor of the Republic of Tatarstan Dear readers! The town of Bolgar has a special place in Russian and World history. For several centuries the capital of Volga Bolgaria and largest center of the Golden Horde dwelled at the crossroads of great medieval civilizations, astounding the contemporaries with developed trade and crafts, wonderful architectural sites and Muslim enlightenment. It was Bolgar where Islam was adopted by our ancestors as a national religion, which promoted the development of high culture, imperishable spiritual values and traditions of the Tatar people. One can say that Bolgar lives within each citizen of Tatarstan reminding him of glorious achievements of the past and filling his heart with pride for priceless cultural heritage of the native republic. This is why the revival of our common heritage in ancient Bolgar and the island city of Sviyazhsk has evoked a keen response of the widest public, presenting itself as a national program for preservation of historical and cultural monuments. The unquestionably dominant asset of this major process is the support by President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin and President of the Tatarstan Republic Rustam Minnikhanov devoting special attention to the progress of works on renovation and restoration of sacred places in Bolgar and Sviyazhsk. Studies performed by our scientists with contribution by architects, builders and restorers provide a conclusive proof that the city of Bolgar remains one of the outstanding sites of world historical and cultural heritage. I think that the book “Great Bolgar” based on unique references and latest scientific achievements can give a thoughtful reader substantial insight of the ancient city, crucial for the understanding of history of multicultural Russia. 6 GREAT BOLGAR Preface A prayer in Bolgar Not many existing archaeological remains of having increased to 25 hectares by the early 13th ancient settlements bear witness of the former century. By the middle of the 13th century the greatness and power and represent the focus of town’s territory had expanded to 400 hectares. spiritual and cultural values of the contemporary A vast suburban area encircled the fortress peoples. In this respect, the importance of in all periods of its existence. Aga-Bazar, an Bolgar in the past and present of global culture international market well known far beyond the can hardly be overstated, as its monuments are Volga region, was located several kilometres to A stamping matrix for jewellery. not lifeless ruins but a living memory of the the west of the town. Its territory is represented Bronze. Casting. 14th c. Bolgar millennial history of the Tatars. Here, historical by archaeological sites dating back to the second settlement. Bolgar State Historical drama unfolded alongside international half of the 1st millennium A.D. related to the and Architectural Reserve trade and masterpieces created by poets and Pre-Bolgar, Bolgar and later periods, as well as architects. Bolgar became a living witness and by architectural monuments of the 13th – 14th true reflection of the great past of the Turkic- centuries including the Cathedral Mosque, Muslim civilization of the Volga region. Eastern and Northern mausoleums, Khan’s Bolgar settlement is located in Spassky Tomb, Small Minaret, Black Chamber, White district of the Republic of Tatarstan on the left Chamber, Khan’s Bathhouse and a number of bank of the Volga 30 kilometres below the mouth other sites. of the Kama. It is a vast settlement surrounded Historical Bolgar town, the remains of by a rampart over 5 kilometres in length, its which are located on the site of ancient Bolgar shape resembling a southward projecting settlement, is the oldest centre of Volga Bolgaria triangle. The area of the fortified part of the site that later became the first capital of the Ulus of changed over time. In the 10th – the first half Jochi (the Golden Horde). Thus, at the example of the 11th centuries it occupied 12 hectares, of this site one can trace the entire millennial 7 V.G. Shaykhetdinov. Reflections by A memorial sign commemorating the Cathedral mosque. Canvas. Oil. 1996 the adoption of Islam by the Volga Bolgars history of the Tatars and their ancestors from in 922. Opened on May 21, 2012 the dawn of civilization to the present day. Particular attention is paid to this site, as it broadening our understanding of the medieval represents the essence of the entire Tatar history past. The number of written works created in all its complexity and diversity. It combines the over the period of two and a half centuries of Turkic language and the Arabic alphabet, pagan studying Bolgar ruins is immense. Moreover, traditions and deep Muslim faith originating in their number continues to grow as a result of the 10th century with its Bolgar foundation and new discoveries. Tatar contribution, local character of its towns The foundation of Bolgar can be dated and worldwide trade relations. The intersection back to the early 10th century. The early Bolgar of these trends and dilemmas has witnessed period witnessed the completion of transition of intermixing and absorption of numerous Bolgar population to settled lifestyle similar to traditions and emergence of medieval ethnic Saltovo-Mayaki towns, as well as the beginning groups, laying a deep foundation of the modern of town formation in the Middle Volga region. Tatar people and facilitating the research and It was the first urban settlement to arise in the comprehension of this unique historical and area of another settlement situated on a large cultural phenomenon. Keen interest in the international trade route in the region of fertile historical issues of Volga Bolgaria is a testimony land and rich meadows. It was a trading centre of its critical importance in the medieval with international relations along the Volga and history of the region and its significance for our Kama Rivers, a political centre of the emerging contemporaries. feudal state and an economic centre of vast The research of Bolgar antiquities was agricultural and livestock regions. As a trading initiated by Peter the Great in the period of early and political centre it attracted merchants establishment of national science. The interest and craftsmen, and promptly earned wide in Bolgar monuments has not decreased since recognition in international trade as a town on then, but on the contrary, continues to grow. the Volga River which al-Balkhi compared with The number and quality of research works is Kiev at the beginning of the 10th century. increasing, and today historical research attracts The initial stage of Bolgar Town’s formation more and more natural historians, enhancing and was largely related to its crucial location on